RACTIGE 


.vis 


MAIN  LIBRARY-AGRICULTURE 


RURAL    EDUCATION    SERIES 

Edited  by  HAROLD  W.  FOGHT 

PRESIDENT  SOUTH  DAKOTA  TEACHERS  COLLEGE 


PRINCIPLES 
OF    FARM    PRACTICE 


BY 

BENJAMIN   MARSHALL   DAVIS 

TEACHERS   COLLEGE,   MIAMI   UNIVERSITY 

AUTHOR   OF   "  AGRICULTURAL   EDUCATION  IN   THE    PUBLIC    SCHOOLS " 
"  SCHOOL  AND  HOME  EXERCISES  IN  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE" 


D.   C.   HEATH  &   CO.   PUBLISHERS 

BOSTON  NEW  YORK  CHICAGO 


COPYRIGHT,  1922, 
BY  D.  C.  HEATH  &  Co. 


vi  /MM 


2C  2 


PRINTED  IN  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

FOR  several  years  the  author  has  been  giving  a  survey  course 
in  agriculture  for  teachers  and  prospective  teachers  attending 
the  summer  session  of  Miami  University.  Many  of  these  students, 
who  were  teachers  of  agriculture,  have  expressed  a  wish  that  the 
contents  of  the  course  be  assembled  and  organized  into  a  textbook 
adapted  for  use  in  the  problem  method  of  instruction. 

An  attempt  was  made  to  organize  the  material  of  this  course 
around  the  farm  as  the  unifying  center.  It  was  then  submitted 
to  trial  in  both  regular  and  Smith-Hughes  courses  in  high  schools. 
The  results  of  this  test  seemed  to  justify  making  the  material  thus 
organized  available  for  instruction  in  the  form  presented  in  this 
book. 

The  author  spent  some  time  visiting  high  schools  of  Massachu- 
setts where  agriculture  was  being  taught  by  the  project  method. 
Through  the  courtesy  of  Dr.  Rufus  W.  Stimson,  Director  of  the 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  Education  Service,  the  author  was 
able  to  see  many  of  the  projects  in  actual  operation  and  to  study 
the  plans  from  which  they  were  developed. 

He  also  visited  the  agricultural  colleges  of  many  of  the  great 
farming  states  to  inspect  the  work  of  training  teachers  for  agri- 
cultural instruction.  At  this  time  he  came  into  contact  with  a 
number  of  men  interested  in  problems  of  agricultural  education 
and  with  specialists  in  various  scientific  aspects  of  agriculture. 

Mention  is  made  of  this  fact  in  acknowledgement  to  those 
men  for  their  contribution,  though  made  unconsciously,  to  the 
preparation  of  this  book.  The  field  of  agriculture  is  too  large  for 
one  person  always  to  be  sure  of  his  ground  even  in  an  elementary 
textbook.  For  this  reason  the  author  feels  greatly  indebted  to 

4979*13 


iv  PREFACE 

those  who  have  helped  give  authority  to  much  that  appears  in 
the  following  pages. 

Particular  reference  should  be  made  to  Mrs.  Mildred  Douthitt 
Hiers,  Mr.  Charles  Stephenson,  and  Mr.  Clyde  Hissong  for  advice 
and  suggestions  as  to  arrangement  of  subject  matter  from  the  teach- 
ing standpoint,  and  to  Mr.  Hissong,  especially,  for  trying  out  the 
material  thus  arranged  in  a  Smith-Hughes  high  school;  to  Miss 
Miss  Grace  Kiernan  for  compiling  index  and  reading  proof;  to  Pro- 
fessor John  V.  Ankeney,  of  the  University  of  Missouri,  for  reading 
the  manuscript  and  for  several  illustrations;  to  Professor  Bruce 
Fink,  of  Miami  University,  for  critical  reading  of  Chapters  I,  XIV 
and  XV;  to  Professor  T.  L.  Harris,  of  the  University  of  West 
Virginia,  for  suggestions  in  preparation  of  Chapters  XXVIII, 
XIX  and  XXX;  to  Dean  Alfred  Vivian,  of  the  Agricultural  Col- 
lege of  Ohio  State  University,  for  comments  on  correct  theories  and 
practices  relating  to  soil  fertility  and  use  of  fertilizers;  to  Professor 
G.  I.  Christie,  Director  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
Purdue  University,  and  to  members  of  the  staff,  for  many  help- 
ful suggestions  and  for  reading  the  proof  of  the  entire  book;  to 
Mrs.  Emma  Johnson  Davis,  wife  of  the  author,  for  her  great 
help  in  preparing  the  manuscript  for  publication  and  in  reading 
the  proof  sheets. 

Acknowledgement  is  given  in  the  description  of  the  figures 
as  they  appear  in  the  text  for  those  not  made  by  the  author  or 
under  his  direction. 


EDITOR'S   INTRODUCTION 

Principles  of  Farm  Practice  is  written  with  the  fundamental 
fact  in  mind  that  Agriculture  teaching,  like  agricultural  life,  must 
be  lived  from  day  to  day.  Instruction  in  theory  and  the  accumula- 
tion of  facts  are  of  little  value  in  themselves.  The  textbook  and 
teaching  process  that  make  the  things  taught  part  of  the  student's 
life,  because  of  logical  arrangement  and  practical  application  to 
every  day  affairs,  are  alone  worth  while.  Such  it  is  hoped,  the 
present  book  will  prove  to  be. 

In  teaching  such  a  primary  subject  as  agriculture,  it  is  well 
to  keep  in  mind  that  food,  clothing  and  shelter  come  first  in  the 
list  of  human  wants.  Until  they  are  provided  the  people,  either 
savage  or  civilized,  will  pay  little  attention  to  the  other  desirable 
things  of  life.  If  modern  agricultural  people,  therefore,  are  to 
live  well  rounded  lives  they  must  first  of  all  be  put  in  a  position 
to  make  a  good  living  out  of  the  land.  In  the  United  States  about 
seventy-five  percent  of  the  nation's  wealth  comes  immediately  out 
of  the  land  in  one  form  or  another.  The  farmers  are  the  greatest 
wealth  producers  we  have,  although  not  the  greatest  wealth 
keepers;  for,  under  the  present  system  of  agricultural  organization 
the  farmers  are  able  to  keep  only  a  small  part  of  this  wealth  for 
themselves.  The  schools  must,  accordingly,  teach  new  things, 
not  alone  .in  agricultural  production  —  acre  by  acre,  but  also 
in  how  to  prepare  products  for  market  and  how  to  market  them. 

This  book  accordingly  aims  to  help  the  children  to  become  better 
and  more  scientific  farm  folk  than  those  who  have  gone  before 
them;  but  most  of  all  it  aims  to  help  them  to  live  happy,  contented 
lives  in  the  open  country,  in  fullest  harmony  with  the  nature  en- 
vironment round  about  them.  It  is  not  enough  to  instruct  in 
agricultural  objects  and  practices;  the  educational  and  spiritual 
views  of  agricultural  life  are  fully  as  essential.  All  of  these  are 
given  careful  consideration  in  the  book. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  WHAT  WE  NEED  TO  KNOW  ABOUT  PLANTS  TO  HELP 

THEM  GROW i 

II.  THE  SOIL 8 

III.  SOIL  WATER  AND  SOIL  AIR '. 12 

IV.  PLANT  FOOD  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 26 

V.   COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS  AND  SOIL  AMENDMENTS  ....  39 

VI.   SOIL  MANAGEMENT 46 

VII.   CROP  PRODUCTION 57 

VIII.   PRODUCTION  OF  CORN 74 

IX.  SMALL  GRAINS 89 

X.   FORAGE  CROPS '. 108 

XI.  MISCELLANEOUS  CROPS 119 

XII.  USE  AND  CARE  OF  THE  FARM  GARDEN 131 

XIII.  FRUIT  RAISING  ON  THE  FARM 138 

XIV.  PLANT  IMPROVEMENT 147 

XV.   PLANT  DISEASES 161 

XVI.  WEEDS 173 

XVII.  INSECTS 180 

XVIII.   BIRDS  AS  RELATED  TO  AGRICULTURE 194 

XIX.  WHY  RAISE  FARM  ANIMALS? 201 

XX.  How  TO  PRODUCE  FARM  ANIMALS 205 

XXI.  KIND  OF  FARM  ANIMALS  TO  KEEP 216 

XXII.  PRODUCTION  OF  BEEF  CATTLE 220 

XXIII.  DAIRY  CATTLE  (MILK  PRODUCTION) 223 

XXIV.  SHEEP  PRODUCTION 252 

XXV.  HOG  PRODUCTION 261 

XXVI.  FARM  HORSES..                           270 


viii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXVII.  POULTRY  RAISING  ON  THE  FARM 278 

XXVIII.   FARM  MANAGEMENT 294 

XXIX.  THE  FARM  HOME 309 

XXX.   THE  RURAL  COMMUNITY 319 

APPENDIX 327 

I.   References 327 

II.   Digestible  Nutrients  in  100  Pounds  of  Common  Feeding 

Stuffs    335 

III.  Feeding  Standard 336 

IV.  Spraying  Program 337 

INDEX  343 


AUTHOR'S    INTRODUCTION— TO   THE   TEACHER 

THE  successful  teacher  of  agriculture  has  in  mind  the  transfer 
of  what  he  teaches  into  actual  practice.  His  ultimate  aim  is  not 
so  much  to  present  information  about  farming  as  it  is  to  con- 
tribute something  toward  better  and  more  profitable  farming, 
the  essential  basis  for  a  better  and  more  attractive  rural  life.  With 
such  an  aim  his  problem  is  by  no  means  an  easy  one.  "Profitable 
farming,"  says  former  Secretary  Meredith  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  "depends  upon  three  things:  ample 
production,  minimum  cost,  and  adequate  prices."  -  Referring 
to  production  he  says: 

"Ample  production  at  minimum  cost  involves  more  efficient 
methods  and  economical  operations.  Factors  in  this  are  better 
utilization  of  the  soil,  more  intelligent  use  of  fertilizers,  the  use 
of  better  seed,  the  growing  of  more  productive  strains  and  varieties, 
better  methods  of  preventing  soil  erosion,  more  effective  methods 
of  combating  insect  pests,  plant  and  animal  diseases,  the  produc- 
tion of  more  and  better  grades  of  live  stock,  better  utilization 
of  forage  and  roughage  and  waste  materials  on  the  farms,  better 
maintenance  of  soil  fertility  by  conserving  soil  moisture  and  ma- 
nure, and  a  greater  use  of  legumes  in  rotations  and  as  companion 
or  intertilled  crops;  the  greater  use  of  machinery  and  practical 
mechanical  power  on  farms. 

"The  problem  of  securing  for  the  farmer  prices  which  will 
enable  him  to  maintain  production  is  a  more  difficult  one.  At- 
tention must  be  given  to  better  and  more  economical  methods  of 
grading,  storing,  marketing,  and  distributing  farm  products." 

To  these  factors  two  others  may  be  added:  that  of  management 
which  is  necessary  to  correlate  the  various  farm  enterprises  into 
a  well-planned  system;  and  that  of  adequate  business  accounting 
which  must  accompany  efficient  management. 

ix 


x  AUTHOR'S    INTRODUCTION 

It  is  difficult  to  find  a  basis  of  organization,  or  a  principle  of 
unity,  to  bind  this  large  and  diverse  array  of  subject  matter  into 
a  teaching  whole.  It  cannot  be  found  by  considering  agriculture 
as  a  science,  although  much  of  it  is  founded  upon  several  sciences; 
for  agriculture  involves  the  art  of  farming  as  well  as  business 
methods.  It  seems  necessary,  therefore,  to  look  to  the  successfully 
operated  farm  itself  to  find  some  means  of  unifying  our  subject 
for  the  purpose  of  instruction.  From  this  source  we  draw  two 
important  conclusions  in  regard  to  successful  farming:  One  is 
the  characteristic  of  permanency  that  tends  to  conserve  the  re- 
sources of  the  land;  the  other,  the  close  relationship  between 
principle  and  practice  observed  in  the  various  farm  operations. 

The  late  Professor  Cyril  G.  Hopkins  of  the  University  of  Illinois 
was  fond  of  using  the  expression  " permanent  agriculture"  when 
he  referred  to  the  objective  of  American  farming.  He  had  in  mind 
not  only  the  present  farmer  but  also  the  future  farmer.  He  thought 
not  only  of  the  individual  farm  but  of  all  the  farms  in  the  country. 
He  had  in  mind  stability  of  farming  as  a  national  asset,  as  con- 
trasted with  the  exploitation  of  naturally  fertile  land  so  much 
practiced  today.  He  regarded  the  farm  as  an  important  unit  in 
the  conservation  of  our  natural  resources. 

This  idea  of  conservation,  in  the  sense  of  permanent  agriculture, 
if  kept  in  mind  when  dealing  with  the  various  aspects  of  farming 
will  help  to  give  unity  to  the  subject  and  to  bind  together  many 
of  the  diverse  elements  that  must  be  considered  in  teaching 
agriculture. 

Furthermore,  it  is  not  easy  to  isolate  principle  from  practice  in 
farming.  In  actual  farming  the  two  are  closely  related.  This 
fact  has  suggested  the  title  of  the  book.  It  has  influenced  the 
development  of  the  subject  with  the  farm  itself  as  the  organizing 
center.  It  has  enabled  the  author  to  eliminate  much  agricultural 
information  which,  though  interesting,  has  little  direct  application 
in  real  practice,  such  as  descriptions  of  insects  and  their  classifica- 
tion, the  history  of  breeds  of  live-stock,  the  detailed  discussion  of 
varieties  of  farm  plants,  geological  formation  of  the  soil,  etc.  This 


TO    THE    TEACHER  xi 

plan  was  followed  to  enable  the  pupil  to  keep  the  farm  and  its 
operation  prominently  in  view. 

Another  reason  for  recognizing  the  close  relation  of  principle 
and  practice  in  a  textbook  on  agriculture  is  found  in  the  present 
tendency  to  use  the  problem  method  and  home  projects  in  teaching. 

It  is  the  hope  of  the*"  author  that  the  matter  presented  in  this 
book  may  be  helpful  to  teachers  who  follow  either  or  both  of  these 
types  of  instruction.  In  this  connection  it  seems  worth  while  to 
point  out  briefly  the  large  aspects  of  the  subject  as  they  appear 
as  a  series  of  problems,  one  developing  from  another. 

Starting  with  the  plant  —  since  all  kinds  of  farming  are  based 
directly  or  indirectly  upon  plant  products  —  it  appears  that  we 
need  to  know  how  the  plant  itself  lives  and  grows  in  order  to 
help  it  live  and  grow.  Such  an  inquiry  leads  to  the  conclusion  that 
whatever  help  is  given  must  be  applied  largely  through  the  soil. 

This  suggests  the  soil  as  the  next  subject  of  study.  What  is 
the  soil?  Of  what  is  it  made?  How  does  it  hold  water,  air,  and 
other  substances  needed  by  the  plant  in  its  growth?  What  sub- 
stances in  the  form  of  fertilizers  or  soil  amendments  may  be  added 
to  make  the  soil  more  productive?  How  may  the  various  facts 
about  the  soil  and  its  relation  to  plants  be  applied  in  soil 
management? 

A  knowledge  of  the  soil  and  of  how  to  manage  it  is  needed  for 
an  intelligent  production  of  crops.  But  crop  production  depends 
upon  other  factors  besides  the  soil.  What  are  the  principles  apply- 
ing generally  to  all  crop  production?  What  are  the  special  require- 
ments for  the  production  of  common  crops,  such  as  corn,  small 
grains,  forage  crops,  and  miscellaneous  crops,  and  for  the  care 
and  management  of  the  farm  garden  and  the  farm  orchard? 

How  may  plants  be  improved  to  increase  crop  production? 
How  may  crops  be  protected  from  things  that  interfere  with  pro- 
duction, as  weeds,  plant  diseases,  and  insects? 

When  a  crop  is  produced  what  shall  be  done  with  it?  Shall  it 
be  sold  for  cash  or  fed  to  farm  animals?  Shall  farm  animals  be 
kept;  if  so,  how  shall  they  be  cared  for?  What  breeds  shall  be 


xii  AUTHOR'S    INTRODUCTION 

kept  or.  raised  on  the  farm?  If  beef  cattle,  what  breeds  are  desir- 
able, and  how  shall  they  be  handled?  If  milk  is  to  be  produced 
as  a  chief  farm  enterprise,  what  breeds  of  dairy  cattle  shall  be  used? 
What  special  care  shall  be  taken  in  feeding  and  care  of  the  herd; 
and  what  practice  shall  be  observed  in  handling  milk?  If  sheep 
or  hogs  are  to  be  raised,  questions  of  breed,  feeding,  shelter  and 
care  are  important. 

How  shall  all  of  the  farm  operations  be  correlated  and  the  farm 
managed  in  an  efficient  manner?  What  accounts  shall  be  kept 
in  order  to  give  necessary  business  information?  What  sort  of  a 
home  shall  the  farmer  have?  What  things  are  essential  in  mak- 
ing his  home  convenient,  comfortable,  and  attractive? 

Finally,  what  relationships  shall  the  farmer  have  with  his  neigh- 
bors? What  place  shall  he  take  with  his  fellow  men  in  his  com- 
munity? What  can  he  do  to  make  his  community  a  better  place 
in  which  to  live?  What  can  he  do  in  cooperation  with  others  to 
make  effective  the  various  agencies  of  the  open  country  that  touch 
the  lives  of  rural  people,  as  farmers'  clubs,  the  school,  the  church, 
and  the  recreation  center? 

Each  of  these  questions  or  problems  resolves  itself  into  smaller 
ones.  The  larger  ones  are  presented  as  a  rule  in  single  chapters, 
the  smaller  ones  are  indicated  in  paragraphs.  The  form  of  assign- 
ment of  the  particular  problem  is  left  to  the  teacher,  but  the 
subject  is  indicated  by  chapter  and  paragraph  headings. 

If  a  one-year  or  half-year  course  in  high  school,  or  a  survey  course 
in  a  Smith-Hughes  high  school  is  given,  the  order  of  the  subject 
matter  in  the  book  may  be  followed.  If  home  projects  are  de- 
veloped, the  particular  parts  of  the  book  pertaining  to  the  project 
may  be  used. 

Although  written  primarily  as  a  textbook  it  is  the  hope  of 
the  author  that  the  material  presented  will  not  be  limited  to 
this  field;  but  that  it  may  prove  worthwhile  to  the  reader  who 
is  interested  in  rural  life,  and  may  be  of  practical  service  to 
those  actually  engaged  in  farming. 

Further  information  on  any  subject  in  the  book  may  be  obtained 


TO    THE    TEACHER  xiii 

from  the  references  cited  in  the  Appendix.  Here  also  will  be  found 
tables  of  digestible  nutrients,  and  other  data  useful  for  instruction. 
The  author  has  departed  from  the  usual  custom  of  placing 
questions  and  exercises  at  the  end  of  the  chapters.  A  careful 
inquiry  into  the  matter  has  seemed  to  indicate  that  neither  ques- 
tions nor  exercises  are  much  used.  Most  teachers  prefer  to  for- 
mulate their  own  questions  and  topics,  and  to  prepare  their  own 
laboratory  exercises,  or  to  use  prepared  exercises  in  which  are 
fuller  directions  for  work  than  can  be  given  in  a  textbook. 

BENJAMIN  MARSHALL  DAVIS. 
OXFORD,  OHIO, 
February  i,  1922 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


CHAPTER  I 

WHAT   WE   NEED   TO   KNOW   ABOUT   PLANTS   TO   HELP 
THEM    GROW 

Plants,  the  basis  of  agriculture.  —  Plants  are  the  founda- 
tion of  all  agriculture  either  directly  when  they  supply  food, 
clothing,  or  some  other  human  need,  or  indirectly  when  they 
furnish  feed  for  domestic  animals.  Since  plants  are  really 
the  basis  of  agricultural  production,  we  must,  first  of  all,  in  a 
study  of  agriculture  consider  some  of  the  main  facts  about 
how  plants  live. 

Plants  are  living  beings.  —  That  plants  have  life  is  a 
fact  that  needs  to  be  repeated  though  it  may  be  known  to  all 
who  read  these  lines.  It  seems  necessary  to  emphasize  this 
because  we  habitually  think  of  the  word  "  living  "  as  mean- 
ing to  move  around  and  behave  like  animals.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  plants  are  as  much  alive  as  animals.  In  order  to  live, 
they  require  essentially  the  same  things  as  animals  do;  but 
they  get  these  things  in  an  entirely  different  way.  The  most 
important  of  these  requirements  are  food,  water,  and  air. 

How  plants  get  food.  —  The  green  plants  make  their  own 
food  from  raw  materials  obtained  from  air,  soil,  and  water. 
The  basic  food  material  made  by  the  plant  is  starch  or  a 
starch-like  substance.  Starch  is  composed  of  three  elements: 
carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen.  The  carbon  and  oxygen  come 


2  PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM   PRACTICE 

from  a  compound  always  present  in  the  air,  known  as  carbon 
dioxide,  and  the  hydrogen  from  water.  The  starch-making 
process  goes  on  in  the  green  part  of  the  plant,  mostly  in  the 
leaves.  But  the  work  of  starch-making  from  carbon  dioxide 
and  water  requires  power,  or  energy.  This  power  comes 
from  sunlight.  Here  we  have  an  explanation  of  the  fact  that 
green  plants  thrive  only  in  the  presence  of  sunlight. 

With  starch-like  substances  thus  formed  as  a  basis,  other 
food  materials  are  made.  For  example,  an  important  food 
known  as  protein  is  formed  by  using  the  elements  composing 
the  starch-like  compounds  made  by  the  leaves,  and  nitrogen 
which  is  brought  to  the  plant  in  substances  dissolved  in  soil 
water.  Besides  nitrogen,  a  number  of  other  chemical  ele- 
ments obtained  from  materials  dissolved  in  soil  water  seem 
to  be  necessary  for  food-making  in  the  plant.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these,  from  an  agricultural  standpoint,  are  phos- 
phorus and  potassium. 

Why  plants  need  water.  —  That  plants  need  water  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  they  soon  die  when  deprived  of  water.  A 
leading  authority  on  plant  life  says  that  the  greatest  thing 
influencing  plant  growth  is  water.  It  is  used  by  the  plant  in 
several  ways.  Its  part  in  supplying  the  raw  material  for 
starch-making  and  in  bringing  to  the  plant  several  elements 
from  the  soil,  as  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium,  has 
been  mentioned.  In  addition,  water  helps  to  make  the  plant 
rigid;  it  composes  most  of  the  sap,  transfers  food  materials 
from  place  to  place  in  the  plant,  and  assists  in  the  control  of 
temperature.  . 

Water  passes  through  healthy,  vigorous  plants  in  a  con- 
stant stream,  entering  through  the  roots  and  escaping  in  the 
form  of  watery  vapor  through  the  leaves.  A  large  amount  of 
water  is  thus  used  by  a  plant  during  the  growing  season.  It 


HELPING  PLANTS   GROW 


is  estimated  that  for  every  pound  of  dry  matter  produced  by 
common  cultivated  crops  an  average  of  about  300  pounds  of 
water  must  pass  through  the  plants.  It  has  been  found  that  a 


^uVcW^V 


Diagram  of  a  plant  showing  its  relations  to  the  soil,  air, 
and  water. 

corn  plant  may  lose  nine  pounds  of  water  in  eight  and  one- 
half  hours.  At  this  rate  an  acre  of  corn  would  lose  forty- 
eight  tons  of  water  —  an  amount  equivalent  to  one-half  inch 
rainfall  in  the  given  time. 


PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM   PRACTICE 


How  plants  get  water.  —  If  the  roots  of  a  young  radish 
plant  which  has  been  developed  by  placing  seed  between  two 
moist  pieces  of  paper  are  examined,  they 
will  be  found  to  be  covered  with  fine  hairs. 
These  hairs  are  called  root-hairs.  They 
are  the  absorbing  organs  of  the  roots.  The 
roots  themselves  absorb  little  water. 
They  serve  to  hold  the  plant  in  place. 
They  also  furnish  surface  for  the  develop- 
ment and  distribution  of  root-hairs,  in 
much  the  same  way  that  twigs  and 
branches  of  a  tree  afford  surface  for  the 
development  and  distribution  of  the 
leaves.  All  the  roots  of  a  plant  taken  to- 
gether are  known  as  a  root-system.  As 
roots  grow  in  length  new  root-hairs  appear 
near  the  root-ends,  while  the  root-hairs 
farthest  away  from  the  ends  shrivel  up 
and  disappear.  Thousands  of  little  roots 
of  a  vigorously  growing  plant  push  their 
way  into  all  parts  of  the  upper  layers  of 
the  soil,  where  they  develop  root-hairs  for 
the  absorption  of  water.  In  this  way, 
much  of  the  capillary  water  in  the  region 
of  root  growth  is  reached  and  supplied 
to  the  plant. 

The  extent  of  the  root-system  of  a 
plant  can  be  realized  only  by  carefully 
measuring  or  estimating  the  total  length 
of  all  the  roots.  It  has  been  estimated  that  if  all  the  roots  of  a 
nearly  mature  corn  plant  were  placed  end  to  end  they  would 
extend  about  one  thousand  feet,  and  that  those  of  certain 


Diagram     ot     root- 
hair  much  enlarged. 

A .  Cell  or  root  from 
which  root-hair  is  an 
outgrowth. 

B.  Root-hair. 

C.  Soil  particle. 

D.  Film    of    water 
around    soil    particle. 

Arrows  show  path  of 
water  through  root- 
hair. 


HELPING  PLANTS   GROW 


a6. 


squash  plants  would  extend  fifteen  miles.  The  tendency  of 
a  root-system  to  reach  into  all  parts  of  the  soil  near  its  surface 
is  an  important  fact  to  remember.  Thus,  when  the  soil 
between  rows  of  plants,  like  corn,  is  cultivated  deeply,  es- 
pecially late  in  the  growing  season,  many 
feet  of  small  roots  will  be  destroyed. 

Root-systems  are  of  two  kinds;  those 
having  a  central  root  with  smaller  roots 
radiating  from  it,  and  those  having  a 
number  of  roots  of  nearly  uniform  size 
extending  from  the  part  of  the  plant  lying 
just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The 
former  is  called  tap-root  and  is  illustrated 
by  the  roots  of  such  plants  as  the  com- 
mon clover;  the  latter  are  fibrous  roots, 
illustrated  by  roots  of  such  plants  as  com- 
mon grasses.  Tap-rooted  plants  are  as  a 
rule  deeper  growing  than  those  having 
fibrous  roots.  This  fact  is  sometimes  of 
practical  value  in  selecting  a  crop  for 
very  shallow  soils,  or  for  a  rotation  be- 
tween shallow  and  deep-rooted  plants. 

How  root-hairs  take  water  from  the 
soil.  —  Root-hairs  have  been  referred  to 
as  the  absorbing  organs  of  the  root. 
The  way  in  which  these  hairs  are  able  to 
absorb  water  from  the  soil  may  be  illustrated  by  a  simple 
experiment.  If  a  bladder  with  a  glass  tube  securely  fastened 
into  its  neck  is  filled  with  a  solution  of  sugar  and  then  im- 
mersed in  water  with  the  tube  above,  the  solution  will  begin  in 
a  short  time  to  rise  in  the  tube.  This  action  is  known  as 
osmosis.  It  always  takes  place  when  two  liquids  of  different 


Diagram  of  simple 
apparatus  for  demon- 
strating osmosis. 

A.  Tube. 

B.  Sugar      solution 
within   tube. 

C.  Water 

D.  Membrane  — 
lima  bean  skin  —  sepa- 
rating   sugar    solution 
from  water. 

E.  Cardboard    sup- 
port for  tube. 


6  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

densities,  like  water  and  sugar  solution,  are  separated  by  a 
membrane  through  which  water  may  freely  pass.  The  water 
flows  toward  the  liquid  of  the  greater  density,  as  in  the  above 
instance  where  it  enters  the  bladder  containing  the  sugar 
solution,  or  denser  liquid,  causing  it  to  rise  in  the  tube.  The 
root-hair  may  be  regarded  as  a  small  sac  filled  with  a  liquid 
somewhat  denser  than  water.  When  the  root-hair  comes  in 
contact  with  soil  water  some  of  the  water  passes  into  the 
root-hair  just  as  water  would  enter  a  bladder  filled  with 
sugar  solution.  The  water  then  proceeds  from  the  root- 
hair  into  the  root,  and  thence  into  the  various  parts  of  the 
plant. 

Plants  need  air.  —  If  a  plant  is  deprived  of  air  it  soon  dies. 
Not  only  does  the  air  furnish  carbon  dioxide  for  the  starch- 
making,  but  it  also  supplies  oxygen  in  much  the  same  way 
as  is  done  in  our  own  bodies.  Oxygen  is  needed  by  all  parts 
of  the  plant  all  the  time.  The  parts  of  the  plant  above 
ground  are  surrounded  by  air  and  have  air  currents  freely 
moving  among  them,  so  that  they  are  at  all  times  abundantly 
supplied  with  oxygen.  The  roots,  on  the  other  hand,  being 
below  ground  and  having  only  a  small  supply  of  air,  may  fail 
to  get  sufficient  oxygen  or  may  fail  to  have  the  supply  re- 
newed often  enough  to  remove  injurious  gases  as  they  ac- 
cumulate in  the  soil  spaces.  An  example  of  the  effect  of 
insufficient  air  on  the  growth  of  plants  may  be  seen  in  the 
low  wet  spots  in  a  field  where  some  crop  such  as  corn  is  grow- 
ing. Plants  in  these  wet  spots  are  generally  undeveloped  and 
weak,  and  often  die.  This  is  because  the  water  with  which 
the  soil  is  saturated  has  cut  off  the  air  supply  from  the  roots, 
thus  depriving  them  of  oxygen. 

How  to  help  plants  grow.  —  We  have  seen  that  plants 
require  sunlight,  air,  water,  and  certain  substances  dissolved 


HELPING  PLANTS   GROW  7 

in  soil  water.  Our  problem  is  to  make  conditions  as  favor- 
able as  possible  for  plants  to  meet  these  needs.  A  study  of 
them  will  show  that  we  have  little  or  no  control  over  sun- 
shine and  the  air  above  ground.  The  chief  way  for  us  to 
help  the  plant  therefore  is  through  the  soil.  By  means  of 
various  farm  operations  on  the  soil  it  is  possible  to  control, 
to  a  considerable  extent,  the  water  supply  and  the  air  needed 
by  the  roots,  and  to  furnish  material  containing  such  chemical 
elements  as  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  needs  of  the  plant. 

This  fact  suggests  the  soil  as  the  most  appropriate  subject 
to  consider  next  in  our  study  of  agriculture.  It  is  so  important 
that  we  must  study  it  in  detail.  Especially  should  we  know 
what  it  is  and  how  it  is  related  to  water  supply,  to  air,  and 
to  plant  food. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  SOIL 

IN  the  preceding  chapter  attention  was  called  to  the  fact 
that  some  of  the  needs  of  the  plant,  such  as  sunshine,  were 
beyond  our  control;  while  others  —  relating  to  the  work  of 
the  roots  —  could  be  controlled  through  the  soil,  by  making 
conditions  more  favorable.  The  effect  of  soil  condition  upon 
the  entire  plant  is  recognized  by  everyone  who  is  familiar 
with  growing  plants.  When  the  condition  is  poor,  as  in  hard, 
dry  soil,  the  effect  is  seen  upon  the  entire  plant.  The  roots, 
in  such  cases,  are  unable  to  do  their  work  well.  Consequently, 
the  whole  plant  suffers.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  con- 
dition is  good,  as  in  granular,  moist  soil,  the  whole  plant  is 
well-developed  and  vigorous.  The  roots  have  access  to  air 
and  are  able  to  remove  readily  from  the  soil  the  water  and 
material  in  solution  needed  for  the  growth  of  the  entire  plant. 

Since  so  much  in  plant  production  depends  upon  the  soil, 
it  is  necessary  to  understand  the  most  important  facts  con- 
cerning it  —  what  Soil  is,  where  it  comes  from,  and  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  soil. 

What  soil  is.  —  By  soil  is  generally  meant  the  loose  top- 
covering  of  the  earth.  If  a  small  portion  of  this  substance 
be  placed  in  a  bottle  of  water,  well  shaken  and  then  allowed 
to  settle,  it  will  be  seen  to  be  made  up  of  particles  of  different 
sizes.  The  larger  particles  will  be  found  at  the  bottom, 
smaller  ones  next,  and  so  on  to  the  very  fine  particles  that 


THE   SOIL 


B 


T5^ 


• 

3EE 


Diagram  illustrating   relation 
of  soil  to  sub-soil. 

A.   Soil.        B.   Sub-soil. 
C.   Underlying  rocks. 


remain  for  a  while  in  suspension.    Some  small  pieces  of  dark 

material  will  probably  be  noticed  floating  on  the  surface  of 

the  water.    The  larger  particles  are 

sand;   the  fine  particles,  silt;    the 

very  fine  particles,  clay;  the  float- 
ing bits  of  dark  material,  organic 

matter,  or  humus.    Sand,  silt,  and 

clay  are  rock  particles,    differing 

mainly  in  size.     Organic   matter, 

or  humus,  is  the  remains  of  decayed 

plants  or  animals. 

Where    soil    comes    from.  —  A 

long  time  ago  the  upper  surface  of 
the  earth 
was  solid 

rock,  and  in  some  places  this  condition 
still  exists.  By  action  of  wind  and  rain, 
heat  and  cold,  plants  and  animals,  and 
other  agencies,  many  of  the  rocks  have 
been  broken  into  particles  small 
enough  to  be  washed  away  by  water 
or  blown  about  by  winds.  Through 
a  long  period  of  thousands  of  years 
these  processes  have  been  going  on. 
The  rocks  on  higher  places  like  moun- 
B.  Granule  —  composed  tains  and  hills  have  been  broken  up,  and 

of  very  fine  particles.         ^  ^^  fragments  have  been  carried 
O*   /\ir  sjpcicc. 

to  lower  levels  by  water  and  wind, 

where  they  were  left  to  form  the  soil  as  we  see  it.  In  the 
meantime,  plants  have  grown  and  died  and  their  remains  have 
become  mixed  with  the  rock  particles.  This  fact  accounts 
for  the  presence  of  organic  matter,  or  humus,  in  the  soil. 


Diagram  of  soil  particles 
enlarged. 

A.   Sand. 


10  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Loss  of  soil  by  the  action  of  water.  —  The  same  processes 
that  made  the  soil  are  continuing  today.  Material  from 
higher  levels  is  constantly  being  removed  by  water  to  lower 
levels.  This  not  only  applies  to  the  wearing  away  of  rocks, 
but  to  that  of  the  soil  itself.  One  has  only  to  observe  the 
effect  of  a  rain  to  see  how  readily  the  soil  is  washed  from  a 
hillside.  The  soil  particles  are  carried  by  the  smaller  streams 
into  the  larger  ones,  and  so  on,  until  finally  some  are  swept 


An  illustration  of  effect  of  erosion  on  a  field. 
(U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

into  the  ocean.  But  all  along  particles  are  left  by  the  water; 
by  the  slow  waters  in  bends,  on  level  stretches,  and  at  the 
edges  of  the  streams,  especially  as  the  waters  of  the  streams 
get  lower  and  the  currents  less  swift. 

If  the  bottom  land  which  has  recently  been  covered  with 
the  water  from  an  overflow  of  a  stream  is  examined,  it  will 
be  seen  to  be  covered  with  fine  sand  and  silt  left  there  by  the 
receding  waters.  This  deposit  has  come  from  the  land  of 


THE  SOIL  ii 

higher  levels.  The  total  amount  of  soil  thus  carried  away  is 
very  great.  It  is  claimed  that  if  all  the  soil  particles  carried 
by  the  waters  of  the  Mississippi  River  in  one  year  were 
made  into  a  solid  rectangular  block,  it  would  cover  one 
square  mile  and  be  268  feet  high.  The  amount  of  soil  carried 
away  by  water  varies  with  the  slope  of  the  land;  the  steeper 
the  slope,  the  swifter  the  water  current,  and  therefore  the 
greater  the  quantity  of  soil  material  carried  away.  In  hilly 
lands  the  loss  of  soil  from  the  uplands  is  considerable,  so  much, 
indeed,  that  measures  need  to  be  taken  to  reduce  the  loss. 

Kinds  of  soil.  —  The  size  of  the  particles  which  make  up 
the  soil  varies  greatly.  In  some  places  most  of  the  particles 
are  sand,  as  in  a  sandy  soil.  In  others,  clay  particles  are 
most  abundant,  as  in  clay  soil.  Sometimes  particles  of  clay 
and  silt  make  up  about  half  and  sand  the  other  half.  Such 
soil  is  called  a  loam.  If  the  mixture  contains  somewhat 
more  fine  particles  than  sand,  the  soil  is  known  as  a  clay 
loam;  but  if  more  sand  than  silt  and  clay,  it  is  called  a  sandy 
loam.  These  names,  sandy,  clay,  loam,  clay  loam  and  sandy 
loam,  are  in  common  use  in  describing  soils. 

We  should  now  turn  back  and  read  again  the  first  para- 
graph of  this  chapter  and  notice  especially  the  last  sentence 
in  the  paragraph.  Rock  particles  alone,  although  they  make 
up  the  soil  mass,  do  not  constitute  a  fertile  soil.  Air,  water, 
and  material  for  plant  food  are  equally  essential  for  plant 
growth.  For  this  reason  each  of  these  should  be  considered 
in  its  relation  to  the  soil,  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  the  plant 
on  the  other.  In  the  next  few  chapters  we  shall  try  to  learn 
something  more  about  these  relations. 


CHAPTER  III 
SOIL  WATER  AND   SOIL  AIR 

WATER  IN  THE  SOIL 

Why  water  is  needed.  —  The  importance  of  water  for 
plant  use  has  already  been  intimated  in  Chapter  I.  It  is  not 
only  directly  useful  in  the  various  ways  noted  in  that  chapter, 
but  it  has  indirect  benefits  upon  plant  life  almost  as  great. 

Water  is  a  great  solvent.  That  is,  it  has  the  power  of 
changing  substances  from  a  solid  condition  to  one  known  as 
a  solution.  A  lump  of  sugar  placed  in  a  glass  of  water  soon 
disappears  as  a  solid.  The  sugar  is  held  invisibly  in  some 
way  by  the  water,  for  we  know  that  water  in  which  sugar  is 
dissolved  tastes  sweet  and  when  evaporated  leaves  a  solid 
residue  of  sugar.  This  property  of  water  —  acting  as  a 
solvent  —  enables  it  to  dissolve  certain  solid  substances  of 
the  soil  so  that  they  may  pass  in  solution  into  the  plant, 
the  only  possible  way  for  them  to  enter.  The  same  property 
enables  the  water  to  carry  dissolved  material  from  place  to 
place  in  the  soil,  as  from  the  depths  to  the  surface  when  the 
water  moves  upward. 

Water  also  brings  about  changes  in  the  position  of  the 
soil  particles  with  reference  to  one  another,  making  the  soil 
in  some  instances  granular,  and  in  others  more  compact. 
This  fact  will  be  kept  in  mind  as  a  further  consideration  of 
the  action  of  water  in  the  soil  since  it  is  an  important  one  in 
connection  with  soil  management. 


SOIL  WATER  AND   SOIL  AIR 


Water  has  another  property  that  is  of  importance  in  soil 
management.  It  has  a  large  capacity  for  absorbing  and 
retaining  heat.  This  property  is  made  use  of  in  heating 
buildings  by  hot  water  systems.  Water  once  heated  remains 
hot  for  a  long  time,  giving  off  heat  slowly,  but  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  keep  the  rooms  of  a  building  warm.  Another 
illustration  is  found  in  the  influence  of  large  bodies  of  water, 


\V»o*tt*abl«  \ 


Diagram  showing  regions  of  capillary  and  free  water.    Note 
distribution  of  roots  in  area  of  capillary  water. 

such  as  the  Great  Lakes,  in  tempering  climate,  making  the 
shore  regions  warmer  in  winter  and  cooler  in  summer. 

Water  in  the  soil  influences  its  temperature  —  an  important 
matter  in  crop  production,  especially  in  early  spring  when 
heat  is  needed  to  start  plants  to  growing.  Soils  having  a 
large  capacity  for  holding  water  are  called  cold  soils,  because 
when  filled  with  water  which  takes  up  heat  slowly  they 
remain  cold  long  after  soils  having  less  capacity  for  holding 


14  PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM   PRACTICE 

water  have  become  warm.  Heavy  clay  is  an  example  of  a 
cold  soil;  it  is  not  the  clay  but  the  water  held  by  the  clay 
that  makes  it  slow  to  heat.  Sandy  soil,  on  the  other  hand, 
which  holds  but  little  water,  is  regarded  as  a  warm  soil. 

Another  use  for  water  in  the  soil  is  that  it  meets  the  need 
for  moisture  of  certain  microscopic  plants,  chiefly  bacteria, 
that  are  always  present  in  fertile  soils.  These  organisms  need 
water  quite  as  much  as  other  forms  of  life. 

How  water  is  held  by  the  soil.  —  In  order  to  understand 
how  the  soil  holds  water,  we  must  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that 
it  is  largely  made  up  of  particles  of  rock.  These  particles  are 
irregular  in  shape  and  size,  so  that  spaces  are  left  between 
them.  The  arrangement  may  be  suggested  by  thinking  of  a 
number  of  rocks  and  bricks  thrown  loosely  together.  Here 
spaces  of  various  sizes  and  shapes  occur  among  the  rocks 
and  bricks  just  as  they  occur  among  soil  particles,  differing 
only  in  size.  When  these  spaces  are  filled  with  water,  the 
water  is  known  as  free  water.  When  water  appears  at  the 
surface  of  the  soil  or  at  lower  levels,  as  when  a  hole  in  the 
ground  becomes  filled  with  water  from  adjoining  soil  spaces, 
it  furnishes  an  example  of  free  water. 

When  water  clings  to  the  surface  of  soil  particles  and  is 
held  in  the  sharp  angles  between  them,  but  does  not  occupy 
the  spaces,  it  is  known  as  film  or  capillary  water.  If  a  pencil 
is  dipped  in  water,  the  part  coming  in  contact  with  water 
will  become  wet.  Here  the  solid  substance  of  the  pencil 
attracts  and  holds  a  thin  layer  of  water  on  its  surface.  It  is 
in  a  similar  way  that  solid  particles  of  the  soil  hold  films  of 
water  on  their  surfaces.  Capillary  water  is  important  be- 
cause it  is  almost  exclusively  the  form  of  water  used  by  the 
plant.  When  the  spaces  of  the  soil  in  which  the  root  of  a 
plant  is  growing  are  filled  with  water,  the  air  supply  is  cut 


SOIL  WATER  AND   SOIL  AIR 


off  from  the  roots  and  the  plant  suffers.  It  is  largely  for  this 
reason  that  the  water  of  the  soil  in  the  region  of  the  roots 
should  be  capillary  or  film  water,  and  not  free  water. 

Amount  of  water  held  by  the  soil.  —  We  have  seen  that 
roots  of  plants  rely  on  root-hairs  to  secure  water  and  that  the 
water  must  be  in  the  form  of  capillary  or  film  water.  The 
quantity  of  capillary  water  held  by  the  soil  is  important, 
for  the  amount  that  can  be  removed  by  the  plant  will  depend 
upon  the  supply  within  easy  reach  of  the  roots. 

Soils  differ  greatly  in  their  capacity  to  hold  capillary  water, 
due  to  differences  in  the 
size  of  soil  particles.  If  a 
piece  of  solid  substance  one 
cubic  inch  in  size  is  put  in 
water  and  then  removed,  a 
certain  amount  of  water  will 
adhere  to  each  of  its  six 
sides  or  surfaces.  If  the 
cube  be  cut  in  half,  it  will 
present  two  additional  sur- 
faces capable  of  holding  a 


Diagram  showing  relative  amount  of 
surface  exposed  by  sand  and  clay. 

A.   Sand.        B.   Clay. 


layer  of  water.  By  dividing  the  cube  its  power  for  holding 
film  water  is  increased,  although  the  amount  of  solid  material 
remains  the  same.  Each  division  adds  more  surface;  the 
greater  the  number  of  divisions,  the  greater  the  total  surface 
provided  for  contact  with  water.  The  total  surface  of  all  the 
particles  of  a  cubic  foot  of  sandy  loam  has  been  estimated 
at  1.39  acres;  of  clay,  3.54  acres. 

A  certain  mass  of  coarse  particles,  such  as  sand,  will  have 
less  total  surface  than  a  similar  mass  of  silt  or  clay  which 
consists  of  finer  particles.  Consequently,  sand  will  hold  less 
film  water  than  either  silt  or  clay.  This  fact  is  easily  demon- 


1 6  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

strated  by  filling  two  tin  cans  of  the  same  size,  having  perfo- 
rated bottoms,  one  with  dry  sand,  the  other  with  dry,  clay 
soil.  After  weighing,  each  can  is  saturated  with  water,  and 
then  allowed  to  drain.  The  water  held  in  each  can  after 
draining  will  be  mostly  film  water.  When  weighed  again, 
the  amount  of  film  water  in  each  may  be  determined  by 
subtracting  the  first  weight  from  the  second.  It  will  be  found 
that  the  clay  or  fine  soil  has  held  more  film  water  than  the 
coarse  soil.  Sandy  soil  has  a  low  water-holding  capacity 
compared  with  clay  or  clay  loam;  its  capacity  may  be  in- 
creased by  adding  organic  matter,  such  as  manure,  which 
retains  a  great  deal  of  water. 

Clay  and  clay  loam,  because  of  the  fineness  of  their  parti- 
cles, retain  relatively  a  large  amount  of  film  water,  but  they 
have  a  tendency  to  bake  and  become  hard  and  cloddy  after 
a  rain.  This  tendency  makes  such  soils  difficult  to  handle. 
They  are  sometimes  called  heavy  soils,  not  because  they  are 
really  heavy  but  because  they  are  hard  to  work.  This  is  a 
serious  difficulty,  but  one  that  may  be  overcome,  in  a  large 
measure,  by  modifying  the  soil  structure  in  such  a  way  as 
to  make  it  retain  its  capacity  to  hold  water  and,  at  the  same 
time,  make  it  more  easily  handled. 

How  water  moves  downward  in  the  soil.  —  When  rain  falls 
or  snow  melts  the  water  has  a  tendency  to  move  downward 
or  percolate  through  the  soil.  This  movement  proceeds  until 
the  level  of  the  free  water  below,  known  as  the  water  table, 
is  reached.  As  the  free  water  accumulates,  the  water  table 
rises  until  finally  the  upper  surface  of  the  soil  is  reached.  The 
soil  is  then  saturated,  all  the  spaces  being  filled  with  water. 
When  more  rain  falls,  the  water  either  runs  off  or  stands  in 
puddles.  This  condition  frequently  occurs  in  early  spring 
after  the  spring  rains  or  melting  of  the  winter  snows.  As 


SOIL  WATER  AND   SOIL  AIR  17 

the  water  near  the  surface  evaporates  or  drains  off,  the  water 
table  is  lowered  leaving  in  the  upper  part  of  the  soil  only 
capillary  water,  the  presence  of  which  is  favorable  for  seed 
germination  and  plant  growth. 

The  free  water  acts  as  a  reservoir  to  be  used  later  by  the 
plants  in  the  growing  season  when  there  may  be  less  rainfall. 
It  becomes  important,  therefore,  to  get  a  sufficient  supply  of 
free  water  into  the  soil  during  the  time  of  heavy  rains.  We 
need  to  know  in  this  connection  something  about  how  water 
moves  downward  in  the  soil,  in  order  that  measures  may  be 
taken  to  secure  the  greatest  benefits  from  water  that  reaches 
the  soil. 

The  downward  movement  of  water  through  the  soil  is 
caused  by  gravity.  The  rate,  or  rapidity  of  movement, 
depends  upon  the  size  of  the  soil  particles.  When  one  lamp 
chimney  is  filled  with  sand  and  another  with  clay,  and  water 
poured  into  each,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  water  runs  through 
the  sand  very  quickly  but  through  the  clay  very  slowly. 
The  rate  of  percolation  in  heavy  soils  is  so  slow  that  when 
rain  falls  on  them,  much  of  the  water  runs  off  instead  of 
entering.  This  run-off  not  only  results  in  the  loss  of  water 
that  might  otherwise  be  stored  up  in  the  soil  for  future  use, 
but  takes  with  it  some  of  the  soil,  another  considerable  loss. 

Sandy  soils  need  no  attention  in  this  respect,  since  the 
water  readily  enters  and  rapidly  sinks  to  lower  levels. 

How  water  moves  upward.  —  The  oil  in  a  lamp  constantly 
moves  along  the  wick  and  up  to  the  flame.  In  a  similar  way 
water  passes  through  a  column  of  soil.  This  may  be  illustrated 
by  filling  a  lamp  chimney  with  sand  and  placing  one  end  in  a 
glass  of  water.  Immediately  the  water  will  begin  to  rise  in 
the  sand,  soon  reaching  the  top.  This  action  is  known  as 
capillarity.  The  soil  particles  or  grains  of  sand  nearest  the 


i8 


PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM   PRACTICE 


water  draw  films  of  water  around  them;  these  films  extend 
to  the  next  layer  of  particles,  and  so  on  until  the  surface  is 
reached.  If  the  lamp  chimney  is  filled  with  clay,  the  water 
will  pass  upward  very  slowly,  requiring  perhaps  several  hours 
to  reach  the  top.  The  rate  of  capillary  rise  evidently  de- 
pends upon  the  size 
of  the  soil  particles; 
the  smaller  the  parti- 
cles, the  slower  the 
rate. 

The  effect  of  the 
different  sized  parti- 
cles on  capillary  ac- 
tion is  important  in 
another  way.  If,  in- 
stead of  short  lamp 
chimneys,  long  glass 
tubes  filled  with  sand 
and  clay  are  used,  it 
will  be  seen  that  when 
water  reaches  a  cer- 
tain height  in  the 
sand  it  will  rise  but 
little  higher,  whereas  in  the  clay  it  will  continue  to  rise 
slowly  for  a  distance  of  several  feet.  In  other  words,  the 
lifting  power  of  sand  through  capillarity  is  much  less  than 
that  of  clay.  Clay  soils  are,  therefore,  able  to  draw  water 
from  greater  depths  than  sandy  soils,  and  consequently  are 
less  affected  by  dry  weather  than  sandy  soils,  provided  there 
is  a  supply  of  free  water  below.  The  great  power  of  clay 
soils  of  lifting  water  by  a  capillary  pull  is  somewhat  offset 
by  the  slowness  of  its  action.  The  same  means  suggested 


Diagram  showing  the  relations  of  soil  particles 
and  water  film  to  a  root-hair. 

A.  Root-hair.        B.   Soil  particle. 

C.  Film  of  water  —  thickened  at  angles. 

D.  Air  space. 

Arrows  show  direction  that  water  takes. 


SOIL  WATER  AND   SOIL  AIR 


for  the  improvement  of  such  soils  by  securing  more  rapid 
percolation  will  also,  to  a  certain  extent,  increase  the  rate  of 
capillary  action. 

How  to  prevent  the  loss  of  soil  water.  —  There  are  two 
sources  of  loss  of  soil  water.  One  is  the  run-off  of  water  that 
fails  to  enter  the  soil;  the 
other  is  through  evaporation 
of  water  at  the  surface. 

Loss  of  water  through 
run-off  may  be  reduced  in 
two  ways:  improving  the 
structure  of  heavy  soils  by 
securing  granulation  through 
the  use  of  lime,  organic 
matter,  tillage,  and  drainage; 
or  modifying  the  surface  in 


Diagram    showing    various    losses    of 
water. 

A,  Through  plant  and  out  at  leaves. 


such   a   way  that  it  will  be    Transpiration. 

B.   Evaporation  from  the  surface  of 

difficult    for   water   to   run   tne  soil. 


C.  Run-off. 

D.  Percolation.     Drainage. 

E.  Mulch  preventing  loss  of   water. 

F.  Area  of  capillary  water. 

G.  Area  of  free  water. 


off. —  by  fall  plowing,  mak- 
ing the  furrows  at  right 
angles  to  the  slope  of  the 
land. 

Loss  of  water  through  evaporation  is  shown  by  the  drying 
of  the  upper  layer  of  the  soil.  The  extent  of  this  loss  may  be 
measured  roughly  by  weighing  a  pan  of  damp  soil,  leaving  it 
in  the  open  air  for  a  few  days  and  then  weighing  it  again. 
The  difference  in  the  two  weights  represents  the  loss  by 
evaporation  for  this  period.  It  is  estimated  that  about  one- 
half  of  the  water  reaching  the  soil  by  rainfall  is  lost  through 
evaporation,  unless  some  means  is  taken  to  prevent  it. 

Since  most  of  the  water  lost  in  this  way  is  capillary  water, 
the  form  absorbed  by  the  root-hairs  of  plants,  it  is  desirable 


20  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

to  check  the  loss  by  some  means.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
soil  under  a  board  or  a  similar  covering  is  often  damp,  al- 
though the  adjacent  soil  may  appear  quite  dry.  This  suggests 
the  use  of  some  cover  on  the  soil  to  prevent  a  loss  of  water. 
For  such  purpose,  except  in  protecting  certain  valuable 
garden  crops,  boards  are  not  practical  because  of  the  expense 
and  labor.  Straw  is  sometimes  successfully  used  as  a  covering. 
But  another  much  simpler  and  less  expensive  method  is  to 
stir,  or  otherwise  pulverize,  the  upper  two  or  three  inches  of 
the  soil  until  it  is  finely  divided.  The  finely-divided  upper 
layer  of  soil  serves  the  same  purpose  as  a  board  or  other 
covering  and  effectually  checks  the  loss  of  water  through 
evaporation.  Such  a  covering  is  called  a  soil  mulch  and  is 
always  used  in  the  best  farm  practice. 

How  to  make  best  use  of  a  soil  mulch.  —  There  are  a  few 
things  that  should  be  kept  in  mind  when  using  a  soil  mulch. 
First,  the  mulch  should  be  as  perfect  as  possible;  that  is, 
the  part  of  the  soil  forming  the  mulch  should  be  uniformly 
fine,  without  clods,  but  not  fine  enough  to  form  a  dust. 
Second,  the  mulch  should  be  renewed  from  time  to  time,  for 
the  water  is  likely  to  ascend  gradually  from  below  through 
capillary  attraction  until  the  surface  is  reached  and  there 
evaporate.  Third,  the  mulch  is  always  destroyed  by  rain 
and  therefore  should  be  renewed  after  each  rain. 

The  series  of  farm  operations  necessary  to  prepare  the  soil 
is  not  complete  until  a  good  mulch  is  formed.  If  a  crop  is  a 
cultivated  one,  like  corn,  it  will  be  necessary  to  renew  the 
mulch  from  time  to  time.  Incidentally,  if  a  good  mulch  is 
secured  and  maintained,  weeds,  which  also  occasion  loss  of 
water,  will  be  kept  down. 

How  to  bring  water  to  the  surface  of  the  soil.  —  Some- 
times the  upper  part  of  the  soil  becomes  so  dry  that  it  does 


SOIL  WATER  AND   SOIL  AIR  21 

not  furnish  a  sufficient  supply  of  water  to  germinate  the  seeds 
that  have  been  planted.  In  such  cases  the  soil  particles  are 
too  far  apart  to  allow  capillary  water  to  reach  the  seeds. 
Here  the  problem  is  how  to  restore  the  capillary  action  so  as 
to  bring  water  from  below  in  sufficient  quantities  to  secure 
germination.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  forcing  together 
the  particles  near  the  surface,  by  the  use  of  a  roller  or  by 
similar  means.  The  broad  wheels  of  a  corn  planter  following, 
as  they  do,  the  grains  of  corn  dropped  before  them,  serve  to 
pack  or  firm  the  soil  at  each  hill.  This  establishes  the  capil- 
lary current,  bringing  the  water  where  it  is  needed  for  germi- 


Effect  of  compacting  soil.    (Cornell  Agr.  Exp.  Station.) 

nation.  As  soon  as  the  firming  of  the  soil  has  served  its 
purpose,  that  is,  when  the  seeds  have  germinated,  the  mulch 
should  be  restored;  otherwise  there  will  be  a  loss  of  water 
by  evaporation  which  will  offset  the  gain  of  quick  germi- 
nation. 

How  water  may  be  controlled  by  drainage.  —  Drainage  is 
an  important  means  of  controlling  soil  water,  especially,  in 
heavy  soils.  The  condition  of  the  soil  which  often  occurs 
in  early  spring  has  already  been  described.  Here  the  free 
water  interferes  with  working  the  soil  by  making  it  difficult 
or  impossible  to  handle.  It  also  interferes  with  the  early 
development  of  the  plants  by  keeping  the  soil  cold,  thereby 
preventing  the  rapid  growth  of  the  young  plants  as  well  as 


22 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


restricting  their  roots  to  a  region  near  the  surface  above 
the  water  table.  If  the  soil,  in  such  condition,  is  undrained, 
there  is  no  way  for  the  surplus  water  to  escape  except  through 
evaporation.  But  evaporation  requires  heat;  consequently, 
the  heat  which  otherwise  might  be  used  in  warming  the  soil 
is  used  to  evaporate  water.  Furthermore,  the  water  table 
during  the  process  is  lowered  so  slowly  that  the  roots  of  the 

young  plants  are  kept 
near  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  because  they 
will  not  grow  to  any  ex- 
tent in  the  free  water 
below  the  water  table. 
Later  in  the  season,  the 
water  table  drops  to 
lower  levels,  but  a  gap 
is  left  between  the  free 
water  below  and  the 
feeding  area  of  the  roots 
above.  The  distance  is 
often  too  great  for  a 
supply  of  water  to  be 
lifted  by  capillary  action 
to  the  region  of  the  roots.  Hence,  plants  in  undrained  soils 
frequently  suffer  from  drought. 

Now, -if  the  land  is  well  drained,  the  water  table  is  soon 
lowered  by  the  removal  of  the  surplus  water  through  drainage 
instead  of  through  evaporation.  Thus  the  heat,  which  in  un- 
drained land  must  be  used  to  lower  the  water  table  by  evapo- 
ration, is  saved.  At  the  same  time,  the  water  table  is  quickly 
lowered  and  plants  are  able  to  send  their  roots  deeper  into 
the  soil.  When  the  dry  weather  of  the  later  season  comes, 


Diagram  of  section  of  undrained  soil. 

A.  Early  in  season.     Roots  are  kept  near 
the  surface. 

B.  Late    in    season.      Plant    suffers    from 
drought  because  of  shallow  roots  not  being  able 
to  reach  area  of  capillary  water. 


SOIL  WATER  AND   SOIL  AIR 


the  roots  may  then  be  deep  enough  to  receive  plenty  of  water 
from  below  through  capillary  action.  Hence,  we  have  the 
apparent  paradox  of  supplying  more  water  to  plants  by 
removing  part  of  it. 

Soil  management.  —  Proper  soil  management  with  refer- 
ence to  water  supply  and  control  is  difficult  at  best.  It  can 
be  accomplished  only  by  making  intelligent  use  of  the  facts 
concerning  soil  water 
that  have  been  pre- 
sented in  this  chapter. 
Further  details  of  soil 
management  will  be 
considered  in  a  chapter 
devoted  to  the  subject. 

AIR  IN  THE  SOIL 

What  soil  air  is.  — 
Atmospheric  air  con- 
tains nearly  21  per  cent 
of  oxygen,  79  per  cent 
of  nitrogen,  and  .04  per  deeper. 
cent  of  carbon  dioxide. 
Soil  air  differs  from 
the  free  air  above,  in  the  respect  that  it  has  less  oxygen  and 
from  5  to  75  times  as  much  carbon  dioxide.  Plant  roots  and 
decaying  organic  matter  produce"  enough  carbon  dioxide  to 
account  for  this  difference. 

How  air  is  held  in  the  soil.  —  The  soil  spaces  which  are 
not  occupied  by  water  are  filled  with  air.  The  presence  of 
air  in  the  soil  may  be  shown  by  pouring  water  into  a  vessel 
containing  soil.  When  the  water  enters,  bubbles  of  air  will 


Diagram  of  section  of  drained  soil. 

A.  Early  in  season.      Free  water  removed 
upper    level   permitting    roots    to    grow 


B.  Late   in    season.     Feeding  area  of  roots 
within  region  of  capillary  water. 


24  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

be  forced  out  by  the  water.  In  a  similar  way  the  amount  of 
air  in  a  certain  soil  mass  may  be  determined  by  measuring 
the  volume  of  water  needed  to  crowd  out  or  replace  the  air. 
Since  the  water  takes  the  place  of  the  air  the  volume  of  water 
used  represents  the  volume  of  air  present  in  the  soil  before 
the  water  was  added. 

The  amount  of  air  in  the  soil  not  always  the  same.  —  Since 
air  is  in  the  spaces  between  the  soil  particles,  the  amount  of 
it  will  depend  upon  the  size  and  number  of  these  spaces  and 
upon  the  degree  to  which  they  may  be  filled  with  water. 
The  latter  point  is  important,  because  the  air  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  soil,  where  it  is  most  needed,  can  be  con- 
trolled to  a  certain  extent  by  regulating  the  amount  of  free 
water. 

Why  there  is  a  need  for  soil  air.  —  Attention  has  been 
called  to  the  fact  that  the  roots  need  oxygen  all  the  time  just 
as  much  as  other  parts  of  the  plant.  In  order  to  meet  this 
need  of  oxygen  the  soil  should  be  well  aerated. 

Soil  aeration  is  important  for  other  reasons.  First,  there 
are  certain  useful  bacteria  that  help  to  make  the  soil  more 
fertile.  These  bacteria  need  oxygen,  and  when  the  roots  of 
plants  are  provided  with  oxygen,  the  bacteria  are  served  at 
the  same  time.  There  are  other  bacteria  that  need  nitrogen 
as  well  as  oxygen.  As  the  air  is  about  four-fifths  nitrogen 
which  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  oxygen,  there  will  always  be 
a  good  supply  of  nitrogen  in  well-aerated  soils. 

Second,  carbon  dioxide  always  present  in  free  air  and  more 
abundant  in  soil  air  is  absorbed  by  the  soil  water,  thus  giving 
the  water  a  greater  solvent  power  than  when  pure.  It  is 
then  able  to  dissolve  more  soil  material  which  is  useful  to 
plants  than  it  otherwise  would.  It  is  possible  that  too  much 
carbon  dioxide  may  prove  injurious  to  the  roots  of  the  plants, 


SOIL    WATER    AND    SOIL    AIR  25 

but  this  is  not  likely  to  occur,  especially  when  the  soil  is 
well  aerated. 

How  the  air  is  supplied.  —  Any  operation  that  will  provide 
soil  spaces,  which  allow  air  to  enter  the  soil  readily,  will  keep 
the  soil  well  supplied  with  air.  As  a  rule,  sandy  soils  present 
no  difficulty,  because  the  large  soil  spaces  between  the  parti- 
cles allow  air  to  enter  freely.  On  the  other  hand,  heavy  soils, 
such  as  clay  and  clay  loam,  having  small  spaces  between  the 
particles,  need  some  modification.  By  producing  a  granular 
condition  in  the  upper  part  of  the  soil,  the  spaces  will  be 
enlarged  enough  to  allow  air  an  easier  access.  If  good  drainage 
is  provided,  the  water  passing  into  the  drain  will  be  replaced 
by  air.  Granulation  and  drainage  are  important  for  other 
reasons,  some  of  which  have  been  given;  others  will  be 
considered  later. 


CHAPTER  IV 
PLANT  FOOD  AND   SOIL  FERTILITY 

What  plant  food  is.  —  While  the  plant  really  makes  its 
own  food  from  certain  simple  substances  as  was  shown  in 
Chapter  I,  the  expression  "  plant  food,"  as  commonly  under- 
stood, refers  especially  to  those  substances  that  are  taken 
from  the  soil  and  used  by  the  plant.  These  are  water  and 
certain  soluble  compounds  containing  elements  necessary  to 
plant  gr.owth.  Some  of  these  elements  are  actually  used  to 
make  food,  and  others  though  not  used  as  food  are  quite  as 
essential,  as  shown  by  the  fact  that  plants  will  not  grow 
without  them.  The  following  is  the  entire  list  of  elements: 
nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium,  calcium,  chlorine,  mag- 
nesium, iron,  and  sulfur. 

The  last  four  of  the  list  are  used  in  such  small  quantities 
that  the  natural  supply  in  the  soil  is  relatively  abundant. 
But  one  or  more  of  the  first  four  —  nitrogen,  phosphorus, 
potassium,  and  calcium  —  may  not  be  available  in  sufficient 
amounts  to  afford  plants  their  best  development.  For  this 
reason  it  will  be  worth  while  to  consider  them  separately. 

NITROGEN 

Supply  of  nitrogen.  —  There  are  three  sources  for  the 
supply  of  nitrogen  in  farm  practice:  the  organic  matter,  or 
humus,  found  in  naturally  fertile  soils,  in  crop  residues,  and 
in  manure;  the  atmospheric  nitrogen  made  available  for 

26 


PLANT  FOOD   AND   SOIL   FERTILITY  27 

•plant  use  by  certain  bacteria,  chiefly  those  occurring  on  the 
roots  of  such  crops  as  clover;  certain  products  rich  in  nitrogen 
that  are  sold  as  commercial  fertilizer. 

Value  of  organic  matter.  —  In  the  early  days  of  farming 
the  soil  was  treated  as  if  it  were  inexhaustible;  crops  were 
taken  off  year  after  year  without  a  thought  of  returning  to 
the  soil  any  equivalent  of  the  plant  food  removed.  As  a 
consequence,  the  yield  became  less  and  less  until  finally  the 
farms  became  unprofitable.  They  were  rightly  called  "  worn- 
out  "  farms. and  were  often  abandoned.  Abandoned  farms 
are  still  found  in  some  parts  of  the  Eastern  States.  One 
practice,  which  more  than  anything  else  brought  about  a 
decrease  in  yield,  was  the  removal  of  the  organic  matter. 
This  practice  made  farming  hard  for  two  reasons;  it  reduced 
granulation  and  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil,  and 
depleted  the  store  of  nitrogen.  Many  worn-out  farms  have 
been  brought  back  to  fertility  by  being  liberally  supplied 
with  organic  matter. 

Making  the  nitrogen  of  organic  matter  available  for  plant 
use.  —  The  presence  of  bacteria  in  fertile  soils  has  been 
referred  to  several  times.  Bacteria  are  very  small  plants,  so 
small  that  the  aid  of  a  good  microscope  is  necessary  to  see 
them  at  all.  It  would  require  many  thousands  in  line  to 
span  an  inch.  But  they  make  up  for  their  small  size  by 
their  great  numbers.  It  is  estimated  that  a  cubic  centimeter 
of  rich  soil  will  contain  from  500,000  to  5,000,000. 

Some  of  these  bacteria  are  able  to  convert  the  complex 
and  insoluble  compounds  of  organic  matter  containing  nitro- 
gen into  simple,  soluble  compounds  of  nitrogen,  chiefly 
nitrates.  Nitrates,  being  soluble,  are  readily  absorbed  by 
plants. 

Bacterial  action  is  required  in  order  to  make  available  for 


28  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

plant  use  nitrogen  and  perhaps  other  food  material  found 
in  humus,  manure  and  crop  residue,  such  as  straw.  The 
series  of  changes  brought  about  by  the  action  of  bacteria  on 
the  content  of  organic  matter  is  called  nitrification.  There 
are  some  conditions  favorable  to  nitrification  that  should  be 
understood.  The  presence  of  water  and  oxygen  is  essential. 
Any  treatment  of  the  soil  that  will  secure  plenty  of  water 
and  oxygen  in  its  upper  surface  will  be  favorable  to  nitri- 

fication. It  is  also  true 
that  water  and  oxygen 
are  essential  for  the  best 
development  of  crops. 
Some  of  the  methods 
of  controlling  the  water 
supply  and  of  aerating 
the  soil  have  already 
been  considered. 

A  common  example   of  how  manure  may         Source  of  Organic  mat- 
lose  much  of  its  value  as  a  fertilizer.     (Indiana    tef  Qn  ^  farm  _ 


Agr.  Exp.  Station.) 

most  common  and  most 

valuable  form  of  organic  matter  that  accumulates  on  the 
farm  is  stable  and  barnyard  manure.  Straw,  cornstalks,  and 
other  crop  residue  are  also  valuable.  Certain  heavy  crops, 
such  as  rye  and  cowpeas,  are  sometimes  grown  as  green 
manure,  for  the  express  purpose  of  adding  organic  matter 
to  the  soil. 

Value  of  manure.  —  Barnyard  and  stable  manure  is  not 
only  rich  in  nitrogen,  but  also  contains  a  considerable  amount 
of  phosphorus  and  potassium.  The  money  value  of  these 
three  elements  alone  is  estimated  at  $2.00  or  more,  per  ton. 
The  total  value  of  the  annual  production  of  manure  in  the 
United  States  has  been  roughly  estimated  at  $800,000,000 


PLANT  FOOD   AND   SOIL   FERTILITY 


29 


and  more  than  one-half  of  it  said  to  be  wasted.  The  presence 
of  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium  in  manure  does  not 
represent  its  entire  value.  When  mixed  with  soil,  it  increases 
the  water-holding  capacity  if  the  soil  is  light,  and  promotes 
granulation  if  the  soil  is 
heavy.  At  the  same  time 
it  brings  into  the  soil  count- 
less bacteria  that  are  use- 
ful in  liberating  or  making 
available  plant  food,  par- 
ticularly nitrogen. 

How  to  prevent  loss  of 
nitrogen  from  manure.  - 
Since  manure  is  of  so  much 
value,  all  possible  measures 
should  be  taken  to  prevent  its  waste.  In  order  to  make 
clear  a  means  of  preventing  or  reducing  the  losses  of  nitrogen 
from  manure  we  need  first  to  consider  what  takes  place  in  an 

ordinary  pile  of  manure 
when  it  is  left  in  the 
open.  In  such  cases 
decay  and  putrefaction 
rapidly  occur  through 
the  action  of  bacteria. 
Among  the  final  results 

Diagram  of  a  concrete  pit  for  storing  ma-  .  .          . 

nure.     If  the  pit  is  water-tight  there  will  be  of     this     action     IS     the 

little  loss  of  plant  food,  especially  if  the  change  of  nitrogen  COm- 
manure  is  kept  well  packed. 

pounds  into  simpler  ones 

known  as  nitrates.  Nitrates  are  quite  soluble  and  are,  there- 
fore, easily  washed  away  as  the  water  from  rains  passes 
through  the  heap.  Nitrates  in  the  lower  part  of  the  pile 
that  do  not  escape  in  this  way  may  be  broken  up  by  other 


30  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

kinds  of  bacteria  into  ammonia  and  free  nitrogen  which  pass 
into  the  air  as  gases.  Ammonia  is  often  so  plentiful  around 
stables  that  it  may  be  detected  by  its  odor. 

The  loss  of  nitrogen  may  be  greatly  reduced  if  the  formation 
of  nitrates  can  be  prevented.  Since  nitrates  are  formed  by 
certain  bacteria  which  must  have  oxygen,  an  easy  method  is 
suggested  for  preventing  their  formation;  that  is,  to  make 
conditions  unfavorable  by  excluding  air.  This  may  be  ac- 
complished by  making  the  pile  as  compact  as  possible,  ex- 
cluding the  air  by  tramping  or  otherwise  pressing  the  material 
together  as  it  accumulates.  The  walls  of  the  pile  should  be 
nearly  perpendicular,  so  as  to  reduce  the  action  of  rain  and 
avoid  loss  by  leaching. 

A  better  plan  would  be  to  keep  the  manure  under  cover. 
A  practice  frequently  followed  in  England  and  sometimes  in 
this  country  is  a  good  one.  The  stables  are  provided  with 
deep  stalls  furnished  with  plenty  of  straw  for  bedding.  The 
straw  absorbs  the  liquid  wastes  and  is  under  cover,  and  as 
the  manure  accumulates  it  is  also  thoroughly  packed  by  the 
tramping  of  the  animals. 

Another  method  of  preventing  the  deterioration  of  manure 
is  to  spread  it  on  the  fields  as  rapidly  as  it  accumulates.  This 
practice  is  comparatively  easy  if  manure  spreaders  are  used. 
It  is  said  that  a  manure  spreader  will  pay  for  itself  in  less  than 
two  years  by  preventing  loss  of  nitrogen  and  by  saving  labor. 
After  the  manure  is  spread  upon  the  field  the  formation  of 
nitrates  is  an  advantage  rather  than  a  disadvantage,  for  they 
pass  into  the  soil  where  they  are  needed  as  they  are  formed. 

Use  of  legumes  for  supplying  nitrogen.  —  Legumes  are 
those  plants  which  belong  to  the  pea  family.  Some  common 
examples  are  peas,  beans,  clover,  alfalfa,  and  vetch.  If  one 
of  these  plants  is  dug  up  and  its  roots  examined  carefully, 


PLANT  FOOD   AND   SOIL  FERTILITY  31 

they  will  be  found  swollen  into  knots  in  some  places.  These 
knots  are  called  root  nodules  and  are  characteristic  of  legumes. 
Each  nodule  contains  bacteria  of  a  kind  known  as  nitrogen- 
fixing  bacteria.  They  have  the  power  of  using  the  free  nitrogen 
of  the  soil-air  and  building  it  up  or  fixing  it  into  simple  nitro- 
gen compounds,  such  as  nitrates. 
But  the  nodules  do  not  always  form  on  the  roots  of  legumes. 


Photograph  of  roots  of  red  clover  showing  nodules  of  nitrogen- 
fixing  bacteria.  Nitrogen-fixing  bacteria  greatly  enlarged.  (Wis- 
consin Agr.  Exp.  Station.) 

This  may  be  the  case  when  an  attempt  is  made  to  grow  the 
legumes  on  a  -soil  where  they  have  never  been  grown  before. 
In  such  cases  the  soil  must  be  inoculated. 

By  soil  inoculation  is  meant  the  process  of  transferring  to 
the  soil  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria  enough  to  start  nodules  on 
the  roots  of  the  young  legumes.  One  method  is  to  scatter 
over  the  field  to  be  planted  some  of  the  soil  taken  from  an- 


32  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

other  field,  where  the  same  or  a  similar  kind  of  legume  has 
been  growing.  For  example,  to  establish  alfalfa  in  a  place 
where  it  has  never  grown  before,  soil  should  be  taken  from 
a  field  of  vigorously  growing  alfalfa,  and  uniformly  scattered 
over  the  new  area  to  be  planted,  at  the  rate  of  about  160 
pounds  to  the  acre;  or  inoculating  material  may  be  obtained 
from  a  soil  on  which  sweet  clover  is  growing.  Owing  to  the 
destructive  action  of  the  sun's  rays  on  bacteria  it  is  important 
to  spread  the  inoculating  material  during  a  cloudy  day  and 
to  work  it  into  the  soil  immediately. 

Another  method  is  to  treat  the  seed  of  a  legume,  before 
sowing,  with  a  solution  containing  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria. 
Material  for  this  method  of  inoculation,  together  with  de- 
tailed directions  for  use,  may  be  obtained  from  a  State  Ag- 
ricultural Experiment  Station,  or  from  a  commercial  firm 
recommended  by  the  Station. 

The  use  of  legumes  for  maintaining  soil  fertility  cannot  be 
overestimated.  They  are  also  a  valuable  crop  for  feeding 
farm  animals.  On  every  farm  a  rotation  should  be  established 
which  will  include  a  leguminous  crop  every  few  years,  never 
more  than  five  years  apart.  The  selection  of  a  particular 
legume  may  depend  upon  the  use  for  which  it  is  intended 
and  upon  its  adaptability  to  climate  and  soil.  In  some 
places  it  may  be  clover;  in  others,  alfalfa;  in  another,  cow- 
peas  or  soy  beans;  the  important  thing  is  to  include  some 
kind  of  legume  in  a  rotation. 

Commercial  fertilizers  as  a  source  of  nitrogen.  —  If  nitro- 
gen cannot  be  maintained  in  the  soil  in  the  ways  described, 
as  a  last  resort  it  may  be  purchased  in  the  form  of  a  fertilizer; 
but  it  will  be  found  more  expensive  than  any  other  kind  of 
commercial  fertilizer.  Therefore  it  should  be  supplied  in 
other  ways  whenever  possible.  The  use  of  nitrogen  in  the 


PLANT  FOOD   AND   SOIL  FERTILITY  33 

form  of  a  commercial  fertilizer  may  be  sometimes  justified 
in  spite  of  its  expense.  It  may  be  used  when  nitrogen  cannot 
be  secured  through  the  use  of  manure  and  rotation  of  crops; 
or  when  it  is  desirable  to  give  a  crop  an  especially  good  start, 
as  corn  in  early  spring,  or  wheat  in  the  fall.  In  such  case  the 
nitrogen  is  added  for  its  immediate  effect.  It  is  at  once 
available  for  plant  use;  whereas,  in  early  spring,  the  natural 
supply  of  available  nitrogen  is  small  due  to  the  effect  of  cold 
on  bacterial  action;  and  in  the  fall,  because  the  preceding 
crop  has  partially  exhausted  the  supply.  In  such  cases  the 
supply  of  phosphorus  and  potassium  may  also  be  limited, 
and  the  use  of  a  complete  fertilizer  —  one  containing  all  three 
elements  —  would  be  justified.  But  whether  nitrogen  is 
used  alone  or  in  a  complete  fertilizer,  a  light  application  is 
generally  more  profitable  than  a  heavy  one. 

Nitrogen  may  be  supplied  from  certain  substances  (called 
carriers)  that  contain  it.  Nitrate  of  soda,  sulfate  of  ammonia, 
and  dried  blood  are  always  safe  to  use  and  are  really  eco- 
nomical even  though  they  may  seem  expensive,  since  they 
are  readily  available  for  plant  use. 

PHOSPHORUS 

The  supply  of  phosphorus.  —  There  is  a  limited  supply  of 
phosphorus  in  most  soils.  A  small  amount  occurs  in  manure 
and  in  other  organic  material,  but  not  in  sufficient  quantities, 
as  used  in  ordinary  farm  practice,  to  offset  the  amount  re- 
moved by  crops.  It  must  be  bought  and  added  to  the  soil 
from  time  to  time.  Since  it  must  be  bought,  economy  in 
buying  should  be  considered. 

How  to  secure  phosphorus.  —  The  chief  source  of 
phosphorus  is  certain  mineral  deposits  known  as  phosphate 


34  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

rock;  some  is  also  supplied  by  the  bones  of  animals.  Bones 
are  rich  in  phosphorus.  Rich  deposits  of  phosphate  rock 
occur  in  several  parts  of  the  country,  as  in  Utah,  Tennessee, 
South  Carolina,  and  Florida.  These  rocks  may  be  finely 
ground  and  sold  as  rock  phosphate;  or,  after  being  ground, 
may  be  treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  resulting  product 
sold  as  acid  phosphate.  The  distinction  between  ground- 


COMPARATIVE  YIELDS  ON  HEAVY  CLAY  50IL5 
CLOVER  HAY 


INCREASE 

43  PER  CENT 


INCREASE 
47  PER  CENT 


Chart  showing  increase  in  yield  of  wheat  on  heavy  clay  soil  by  use  of 
manure  and  rock  phosphate  as  compared  with  yield  when  manure  alone 
was  used.  (Wisconsin  Agr.  Exp.  Station.) 

rock  phosphate  and  acid  phosphate  must  be  clearly  under- 
stood. Rock  phosphate  is  insoluble  and  not  immediately 
available  for  plant  use.  Acid  phosphate,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  soluble  and  therefore  available  at  once  for  the  plant  to 
use.  If  quick  results  are  desired  from  the  use  of  a  phosphate 
fertilizer,  acid  phosphate  should  be  chosen. 

When  and  how  to  use  rock  phosphate.  —  Ground  phosphate 
rock  has  a  market  value  of  about  one-third  that  of  acid 
phosphate.  Owing  to  this  fact,  it  would  seem  advisable  to 


PLANT  FOOD   AND   SOIL   FERTILITY  35 

use  the  cheaper  form,  if  its  application  secures  favorable 
results  compared  with  those  obtained  by  the  use  of  acid 
phosphate.  As  has  been  stated,  the  quick  action  due  to 
solubility  must  not  be  expected  of  phosphate  rock.  There 
is  a  question  whether  the  use  of  rock  phosphate  fertilizer  is 
ever  warranted.  There  is  good  authority  for  believing  that 
its  use  under  certain  circumstances  does  give  results  equal, 
or  nearly  equal,  to  those  obtained  from  acid  phosphate  and 
at  less  cost.  It  is 
supposed  that  rock 
phosphate  becomes 
slowly  available  for 
plant  use  through  the 
action  of  bacteria  in 
the  presence  of  an 
abundance  of  organic 

matter.  Diagram    showing    yield    of   potatoes.    Ma- 

in   rtrnrtiVp     SQ    ms      nure    and    rock    PhosPhate    produced   a  yield 
47  per  cent  greater  than  that  of  manure  alone 
nure     accumulates,    on  equal   areas.     (Wisconsin   Agr.    Exp.    Sta- 

finely      ground      rock  tion-> 

phosphate  is  mixed  with  it;  later,  when  the  mixture  is  applied 
to  the  land  and  plowed  under,  the  rock  phosphate  becomes 
thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  soil  along  with  the  organic 
matter  of  the  manure.  If  the  soil  is  not  already  rich  in  lime, 
lime  or  limestone  should  also  be  liberally  applied.  The 
insoluble  phosphate  seems  to  be  changed  into  a  soluble  form, 
though  so  slowly  that  the  effect  of  the  fertilizer  does  not 
begin  to  show  much  until  the  second  season;  but  from  this 
time  on  for  a  few  years,  it  seems  to  have  the  same  effect  as 
acid  phosphate.  The  slowness  of  action  may  not  be  a  serious 
matter,  for  in  good  farm  practice  permanent  fertility  of  the 
soil  is  of  more  importance  than  the  results  of  one  season. 


36  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Besides,  in  order  to  hasten  matters  acid  phosphate  may  be 
applied  as  a  phosphate  fertilizer  for  the  use  of  the  first  season's 
crop. 

It  has  recently  been  suggested  that  the  phosphoric  acid  of 
phosphate  rock  may  be  made  available  for  plant  use  by 
mixing  it  with  calcium  sulfate,  or  land  plaster.  This  claim 
seems  to  be  supported  by  some  experiments  made  by  the 
Oregon  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  If  this 
method  should  be  proved  successful  by  experiments  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  country  under  a  variety  of  soil  and  climatic 
conditions,  it  might  become  worth  while  in  general  farm 
practice.  To  be  of  practical  value,  however,  the  combined 
cost  of  the  calcium  sulfate  and  phosphate  rock  should  be 
less  than  the  cost  of  acid  phosphate  enough  to  yield  an  equiva- 
lent amount  of  phosphoric  acid. 


POTASSIUM 

The  supply  of  potassium.  —  Potassium  occurs  in  soils 
usually  in  considerable  abundance,  except  in  very  sandy  and 
muck  soils.  Not  much  of  it  is  available  because  it  is  in- 
soluble. It  seems  to  be  demonstrated  by  recent  experiments 
that  insoluble  potassium  may  be  made  available  through  a 
liberal  supply  of  organic  matter.  It  is  a  question  whether 
this  method  -of  supplying  potassium  may  be  wholly  relied 
upon  to  furnish  all  that  is  needed  by  crops.  It  may  be  worth 
trying  however,  for  even  if  it  should  fail  to  render  much 
potassium  available,  it  will  leave  the  soil  improved  because 
of  the  addition  of  organic  matter. 

Potassium  occurs  in  large  deposits  in  a  few  places  in  the 
world,  the  most  extensive  being  found  in  Germany  and  in 
Alsace,  France.  Until  recently  most  of  our  potash  fertilizers 


PLANT  FOOD   AND   SOIL   FERTILITY 


37 


have  been  imported  from  Germany.  During  the  Great  War 
when  importation  was  cut  off,  an  increasing  amount  of  po- 
tassium was  supplied  from  a  number  of  sources:  among 


ROTHAMSTED 

AGR.EXP.STA. 

ENGLAND 


PENNSYLVANIA 
AGR.EXP.STA. 


30YRS. 


OHIO  AGR. 
EXP.  STATION 

18  YRS. 
TEST 


INDIANA  AGR 
£XR  STATION 


Diagram  showing  increase  in  yield  of  wheat  where  fertilizers  were  used 
as  contrasted  with  yields  on  similar  areas  where  no  fertilizers  were  used. 
(Ohio  State  Agr.  College.) 


them,  sea  weed  or  kelp,  found  in  great  quantities  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean;  mineral  deposits  in  old  lake  beds,  as  in  Searles 
Lake,  California;  wood  ashes;  and  the  by-products  of  such 
industrial  processes  as  the  making  of  cement  and  washing  of 
wool.  It  seems  probable  that,  in  time,  a  means  will  be  found 


38  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

in  the  United  States  to  supply  most  of  the  potassium  needed 
for  our  farms. 

Potassium,  as  a  commercial  fertilizer,  is  usually  supplied 
in  the  form  of  potassium  chloride  or  muriate  of  potash, 
sulfate  of  potassium,  and  kainit.  The  first  two  contain 
about  fifty  per  cent  of  potash;  kainit,  or  mineral  potash, 
contains  from  twelve  to  twenty  per  cent.  The  word  potash 
is  u.sed  by  chemists  to  express  the  amount  of  potassium  in  a 
chemical  analysis. 

For  certain  special  crops  such  as  potatoes  and  tobacco 
which  have  large  potash  requirements,  it  is  a  good  practice 
to  apply  some  form  of  fertilizer  containing  potash.  (The 
buying  and  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  will  be  considered  in 
greater  detail  in  the  next  chapter.) 

CALCIUM 

The  supply  of  calcium.  —  Plants  require  but  little  calcium 
for  their  growth.  The  store  of  calcium  in  most  soils  is  suf- 
ficient to  supply  the  actual  needs  of  the  plant.  The  chief 
value  to  a  soil  of  substances  containing  calcium,  such  as 
limestone  or  lime,  is  an  indirect  one  —  they  neutralize  soil 
acids.  There  are  plants,  such  as  legumes,  which  will  not 
grow  well  in  acid  soils.  There  are  other  important  effects 
of  calcium  (in  the  form  of  lime  or  limestone)  on  soils  which 
will  be  discussed  in  the  next  chapter. 


CHAPTER  V 
COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS  AND   SOIL  AMENDMENTS 

COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS 

What  is  meant  by  commercial  fertilizer.  —  The  term  com- 
mercial fertilizer  has  already  been  used  several  times  in 
discussing  plant  food.  It  always  refers  to  those  substances 
containing  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  which  are 
bought  and  used  as  fertilizer.  A  complete  fertilizer  is  one 
that  contains  all  three  of  these  components  —  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  Its  composition  is  generally  in- 
dicated by  figures  representing  the  available  amounts  of  the 
three  ingredients  as  shown  by  a  chemical  analysis,  and  is 
expressed  in  percentage. 

The  order  is  always  (i)  nitrogen;  (2)  phosphoric  acid; 
(3)  potash.  For  example,  a  2-8-4  fertilizer  is  one  contain- 
ing 2  per  cent  nitrogen,  8  per  cent  phosphoric  acid,  4  per 
cent  potash. 

The  production  of  commercial  fertilizers  has  become  a 
large  industry  in  this  country.  The  annual  sales  in  normal 
times  amount  to  over  $100,000,000,  most  of  this  amount 
being  spent  for  complete  fertilizers.  In  many  states  the  sale 
is  regulated  by  law.  A  chemical  analysis  of  each  brand  is 
required,  and  thi£  guaranteed  analysis  must  be  made  public. 
It  must  appear  on  each  package  of  fertilizer  for  sale,  usually 
on  a  tag  attached  to  the  package,  and  may  be  printed  in  a 
bulletin  or  circular  for  free  distribution.  In  this  way  both 

39 


40  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

the  fanner  and  the  honest  manufacturer  are  protected. 
Even  with  this  safeguard,  the  farmer  may  be  misled  if  he  is 
unable  to  understand  the  meaning  of  the  analysis  when  he 
reads  it. 

Meaning  of  a  fertilizer  analysis.  —  The  record  of  a  fertil- 
izer analysis,  as  it  appears  on  a  package,  may  at  first  seem 
confusing,  especially  if  a  complete  analysis  is  given.  A 
simple  rule,  easily  followed,  is  to  consider  only  the  lowest 
stated  amounts  of  available,  or  soluble,  ingredients.  The 
following  is  an  example  of  an  analysis  on  a  fertilizer  tag  with 
an  application  of  the  rule: 

ANALYSIS 

Nitrogen i .  64  to  2 . 46  per  cent 

Nitrogen  as  ammonia 2 .00  "  3 .00    "  " 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid 5.00  "  6.00   "  " 

Reverted  phosphoric  acid 3 .00  "  4.00   "  " 

Insoluble  phosphoric  acid i  .00  "  2 .00   "  " 

Total  phosphoric  acid 10.00  "  12 .00   "  " 

Phosphate  of  lime 22.00  "  24.00   "  " 

Available  phosphoric  acid 8.00  "  10.00   "  " 

Potash 3.00"  4.00"  " 

Sulfate  of  potash 1.64  "  2.46   "  " 

Applying  the  rule,  1.64  per  cent  nitrogen,  8  per  cent 
phosphoric  acid,  and  3  per  cent  potash  are  the  only  items  to 
be  considered.  In  each  case  the  lowest  amount  is  taken, 
for  there  is  no  guarantee  that  the  higher  percentage  will  be 
found,  although  it  may  be. 

Ordinarily  the  analysis  as  indicated  on  a  fertilizer  tag  is 
not  presented  in  as  much  detail  as  the  above  example.  The 
form  of  the  certificate  printed  at  the  top  of  the  following  page 
illustrates  a  more  common  practice: 


COMMERCIAL   FERTILIZERS  41 

No.  10456 

JOHN  DOE  &  COMPANY, 
of  Lafayette,  Tnd., 

Guarantee  this 
Doe's  Grain  and  Clover  Producer 

to  contain  not  less  than 
1.6  per  cent,  of  total  nitrogen,  (N). 
2.0  per  cent,  of  potash,  (K.2O), 

soluble  in  water, 
8.0  per  cent,  of  soluble  and  reverted 

phosphoric  acid,  (PjOs),  and 
2.0  per  cent,  of  insoluble  phosphoric 
acid,  (P«0»). 


Purdue  g 

Experiment 

Station, 

LaFayette,  Ind.          State  Chemist. 

How  to  estimate  the  value   of  a  fertilizer.  —  It  is  the 

custom  in  most  states  for  the  state  department  having 
control  of  fertilizer  inspection  to  make  annually  an  estimate 
of  the  value,  per  pound,  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and 
potash.  These  values  may  be  obtained  by  writing  to  the 
State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  For  example,  in  1921, 
the  estimate  prepared  in  Indiana  was  20  cents  per  pound  for 
nitrogen,  7.5  cents  for  phosphoric  acid,  and  7.5  cents  for  potash. 
The  figures  obtained  from  state  authorities  may  be  used  to 
determine  the  relative  values  of  similar  mixtures  offered  for 
sale  by  different  manufacturers,  or  of  different  mixtures  sold 
by  one  manufacturer.  They  may,  in  some  cases,  roughly 
indicate  what  a  reasonable  selling  price  should  be. 

Taking  the  analysis  of  the  fertilizer  given  in  the  example, 
a  ton  (2000  Ibs.)  will  contain: 

Nitrogen  ........................  1.64  per  cent  (  32.8  Ibs.  at  20  cts.)    $6.56 

Phosphoric  acid  ..................  8.00  per  cent  (160     Ibs.  at  7.5  cts.)    12.00 

Potash  ..........................  3.00  per  cent  (  60     Ibs.  at  7.5  cts.)      4.50 

Total  value  ...............................................     $23.06 

To  this  amount  should  be  added  enough  to  cover  reasonable 
expenses  and  profit  of  the  dealer. 


42  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

If  another  similar  brand  should  have  a  calculated  value 
of  $22.00,  and  another  of  $25.00,  these  three  brands  should 
sell  at  nearly  the  same  price.  A  difference  of  five  dollars 
in  the  price  would  be  unreasonable,  for  all  three  are  relatively 
the  same  in  value. 

Prices  of  fertilizers  vary  from  year  to  year.  Those  quoted 
in  the  above  example  have  not  reached  the  pre-war  level  but 
they  serve  to  illustrate  the  method  of  an  approximate  deter- 
mination of  the  value  of  a  fertilizer. 

Home  mixing  of  fertilizers.  —  Where  large  amounts  of 
fertilizers  are  used,  it  is  often  more  economical  to  buy  the 
ingredients  separately  and  mix  them  at  home.  A  clean  floor, 
a  shovel,  and  a  pair  of  scales  with  which  to  weigh  the  correct 
amount  of  each  ingredient,  are  necessary. 

After  the  ingredients  have  been  weighed,  the  lumps  should 
be  pulverized  and  the  material  thoroughly  mixed.  The 
method  of  calculating  the  amounts  is  as  follows : 

All  calculations  are  based  upon  the  percentages  of  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  potash  in  the  materials  purchased.  The  following  are 
the  percentages  of  the  most  common  forms  of  fertilizing  materials: 

Nitrate  of  soda,  16  per  cent  nitrogen. 

Sulfate  of  ammonia,  20  per  cent  nitrogen. 

Dried  blood,  10  per  cent  nitrogen. 

Acid  phosphate,  14  to  16  per  cent  phosphoric  acid  (the  guaranteed 
analysis  will  give  the  exact  percentage). 

Muriate  of  potash,  50  per  cent  potash  (the  guaranteed  analysis  will 
give  the  percentage  of  potash  in  other  forms  of  potash). 

The  amount  of  nitrogen  in  a  ton  (2000  pounds)  of  nitrate  of  soda  is 
found  by  taking  16  per  cent  of  2000.  (2000  X  .16  =  320.)  A  ton  of 
nitrate  of  soda  will  therefore  contain  320  pounds  of  nitrogen. 

If  a  ton  of  a  mixture  containing  2  per  cent  of  nitrogen  is  wanted,  the 
quantity  of  nitrate  of  soda  needed  to  furnish  this  amount  of  nitrogen 
(2  per  cent)  may  be  found  as  follows:  A  ton  (2000  pounds)  containing 
2  per  cent  of  nitrogen  will  have  2  per  cent  of  2000  (2000  X  .02  =  40),  or 


COMMERCIAL   FERTILIZERS  43 

40  pounds  of  nitrogen.  Since  nitrate  of  soda  contains  16  per  cent 
nitrogen,  one  pound  of  nitrate  of  soda  will  contain  .16  of  a  pound  of 
nitrogen  (i  X  .16  =  .16).  Therefore  as  many  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda 
will  be  required  to  furnish  40  pounds  of  nitrogen  as  .16  is  contained  in 
40  (40  -r-  .16  =  250),  or  250  pounds. 

Similar  calculations  can  be  made  of  phosphoric  acid  and  of  potash 
by  substituting  14  per  cent  for  phosphoric  acid  and  50  per  cent  for  potash. 

Suppose  a  ton  of  a  4-8-3  fertilizer  is  to  be  made,  how  much  nitrate 
of  soda,  acid  phosphate,  and  muriate  of  potash  will  be  needed?  First, 
find  the  number  of  pounds  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  in 
a  ton  of  a  4-8-3  fertilizer: 

2000  X  .04  =  80,  or  80  pounds  of  nitrogen. 

2000  X  .08  =  1 60,  or  1 60  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid. 

2000  X  -03  =  60,  or  60  pounds  of  potash. 

Next,  find  the  amounts  of  nitrate  of  soda,  acid  phosphate,  and  muriate 
of  potash  necessary  to  furnish  the  required  number  of  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  potash: 

80  -i-  .16  =  500,  or  500  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  needed  to  furnish 
80  pounds  of  nitrogen. 

i6o-f-  .14=  1142.8,  or  1142.8  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  needed  to 
furnish  160  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid. 

60  -f-  .50  =  120,  or  120  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  needed  to  furnish 
60  pounds  of  potash. 

The  cost  of  such  a  mixture  may  be  easily  found  by  multi- 
plying the  calculated  amount  of  each  ingredient  by  its  average 
market  price  per  pound,  and  finding  the  sum  of  the  products. 

When  buying  the  ingredients  for  home  mixing,  better 
rates  may  be  obtained  by  buying  in  car-load  lots.  The 
saving  is  not  only  on  the  original  cost  but  also  in  the  reduction 
of  freight  charges. 

SOIL  AMENDMENTS 

What  a  soil  amendment  is.  —  Certain  substances  are  often 
added  to  the  soil  for  the  purpose  of  improving  it  physically 


44  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

by  making  its  structure  more  favorable  for  crop  production, 
and  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  chemical  and  bacterial 
action.  The  most  valuable  of  these  substances  is  lime,  al- 
though land  plaster,  common  salt,  and  others  may  be  used 
occasionally. 

How  lime  benefits  the  soil.  —  Some  of  the  calcium  which 
occurs  in  lime  is  needed  by  plants  as  plant  food,  but  lime 
has  other  important  uses  also  that  make  its  presence  in  the 
soil  desirable.  Lime  is  used  to  bring  about  granulation  in 
clay  soil;  to  liberate  or  make  available  such  plant-food 
materials  as  potash;  to  neutralize  soil  acids;  and  to  aid  useful 
soil  bacteria  in  their  work. 

Acid  soils.  —  Whether  or  not  a  soil  is  aci<l  is  of  considerable 
importance,  for  most  farm  plants  do  not  grow  well  upon  acid 
soils.  Legumes,  such  as  alfalfa  and  red  clover,  are  especially 
sensitive  to  soil  acids.  A  soil  is  regarded  as  an  acid  soil  (i) 
when  acids  are  actually  present  in  injurious  amounts,  or 
(2)  when  the  soil  is  deficient  in  lime.  In  either  case  an  appli- 
cation of  lime  is  needed  to  restore  favorable  conditions  for 
the  growth  of  plants  of  greatest  value  in  general  farming. 

How  to  know  when  lime  is  needed.  —  Even  in  limestone 
regions  lime  is  often  lacking  in  the  soil,  particularly  on  old 
farms.  It  is  a  safe  practice  to  test  the  soil  of  each  field  in 
order  to  determine  whether  lime  is  present  or  not.  There 
are  several  simple  tests  that  may  be  applied.  The  following 
is  suggested:  Add  several  drops  of  a  weak  acid,  such  as 
dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  to  a  handful  of  the  soil;  if  small 
bubbles  of  gas  appear  the  presence  of  lime  is  indicated;  if 
no  bubbles  appear  and  there  seems  to  be  no  action  of  the 
acid  on  the  soil,  the  absence  of  lime  is  indicated. 

How  to  lime  the  soil.  —  Experience  has  shown  that  finely 
grouud  limestone  is  the  most  economical  and  satisfactory 


COMMERCIAL   FERTILIZERS  45 

form  in  which  to  apply  lime.  Air-slacked  lime  may  also  be 
used  when  it  can  be  obtained  without  too  much  expense. 
Unslacked  lime  is  not  only  more  expensive  than  ground  lime- 
stone, but  is  likely  to  do  more  harm  than  good  by  destroying 
the  organic  matter  with  which  it  comes  into  contact.  If 
limestone  is  applied,  it  should  be  at  a  rate  of  about  two  tons 
per  acre  the  first  year,  omitted  the  second  year,  and  one- 
half  ton  each  year  thereafter.  Some  farmers  prefer  to  make 
a  larger  application  each  four  or  five  years.  If  water-slacked 
lime  is  used,  only  three-fourths  as  much  is  needed.  There 
is  some  difficulty  in  applying  lime  to  the  land,  but  this  has 
been  largely  overcome  by  the  use  of  lime  spreaders  especially 
designed  for  this  work. 


CHAPTER  VI 
SOIL  MANAGEMENT 

What  soil  management  is.  —  We  have  seen  that  plants 
require  water,  in  the  form  of  capillary  water  with  a  reserve 
of  free  water  below;  oxygen;  certain  food  materials;  and  a 
sufficiently  loose  arrangement  of  the  soil  particles  to  permit 
roots  to  push  their  way  through  easily.  When  soil  is  in  good 
condition  to  furnish  and  continue  to  furnish  these  require- 
ments for  plant  growth,  it  is  said  to  be  in  good  tilth.  Soil 
in  good  tilth  is  somewhat  difficult  to  describe.  "  It  is  porous 
but  not  too  loose;  firm  but  not  hard  or  consolidated;  close- 
grained  but  not  run  together  nor  adhesive."  ^Securing  and 
maintaining  good  tilth  and  sufficient  amounts  of  food  materials 
for  plant  growth  is  the  object  of  soil  management.  Three 
aspects  need  to  be  considered  somewhat  in  detail:  the  means 
employed  in  farm  practice;  the  special  problems  presented 
by  variation  in  soils;  the  relation  of  systems  of  farming  to 
soil  management. 

How  GOOD  TILTH  is  SECURED  AND  MAINTAINED 

In  general  farm  practice  there  are  several  means  employed 
to  secure  proper  soil  conditions.  Among  the  most  important 
are  drainage,  tillage,  rotation  of  crops,  use  of  barnyard  and 
green  manure,  and  application  of  lime. 

Drainage.  —  Drainage  has  been  referred  to  by  a  soil  expert 
as  "  the  foundation  of  good  soil  management."  This  state- 

46 


SOIL  MANAGEMENT  47 

ment  may  be  better  appreciated  by  summarizing  the  various 
effects  of  drainage.  Some  of  these  effects  have  already  been 
considered;  such  as  modifying  the  soil  temperature,  securing 
a  larger  feeding  area  for  roots  of  plants  and  a  better  soil 
ventilation.  To  these  may  be  added :  modifying  the  structure 
of  heavy  soils  so  as  to  make  them  granular  and  porous; 
affording  conditions  favorable  for  action  of  bacteria  in  chang- 
ing organic  matter  into  available  plant  food;  making  it 
possible  for  larger  amounts  of  natural  plant  food  of  the 
soil  minerals  to  become  soluble.  On  the  whole,  drainage  may 
be  considered  as  the  first  essential  of  a  productive  soil. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  list  that  drainage  is  the  means  of 
helping  to  secure  a  variety  of  conditions,  each  of  which  is 
important  in  plant  production. 

Tillage.  —  A  well-drained  soil,  important  as  it  is,  will  not 
produce  satisfactorily  unless  it  is  well  tilled.  The  soil  must 
be  properly  worked  and  handled  in  order  to  secure  the  best 
results  from  good  drainage.  Each  operation  of  tillage,  such 
as  plowing,  disking,  rolling,  and  cultivation,  has  a  definite 
purpose  in  rendering  the  soil  productive,  and  each  must  be 
done  at  the  right  time  and  in  the  right  way  to  become  the 
most  effective.  Plowing  when  the  soil  is  just  right  as  to 
moisture  content  increases  the  amount  of  granulation,  a 
condition  which  has  been  referred  to  as  good  tilth.  Disking 
and  harrowing  further  increase  granulation  until  the  seed- 
bed is  made  ready  to  receive  the  seed.  Rolling  may  prepare 
the  ground  in  some  instances  for  more  effective  use  of  the 
harrow,  or  after  the  seed  is  in  the  ground,  it  may  make  the 
soil  in  the  seed-bed  compact,  thereby  bringing  moisture 
from  below  and  thus  hastening  germination.  Finally,  culti- 
vation forms  a  mulch  which  prevents  the  loss  of  water 
through  evaporation. 


48  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

It  is  through  tillage  that  the  greatest  effort  is  expended 
in  helping  plants  to  secure  their  needs  for  growth  and  de- 
velopment. Much  skill  and  intelligence  are  needed  in  order 
that  the  expenditure  of  time  and  energy  may  be  most  ef- 
fective. 

Rotation  of  crops.  —  By  crop  rotation  is  meant  a  system 
of  planting  in  which  there  is  a  change  of  crops  on  the  same 
soil  from  year  to  year.  There  are  a  number  of  advantages  to 
be  secured  by  a  proper  rotation  of  crops.  Some  have  already 
been  noticed,  such  as  legumes  in  rotation  for  fixing  the  atmos- 
pheric nitrogen  into  compounds  available  for  other  crops. 
Others  are  to  be  considered  in  discussing  cropping  systems. 
But  crop  rotation  has  also  some  direct  effects  on  the  soil 
that  deserve  attention  in  soil  management.  Roots  of  plants 
affect  soil  structure,  especially  in  clay  soils,  by  making  it 
more  open  and  porous.  Some  plants,  such  as  barley,  millet, 
and  wheat,  are  shallow-rooted;  some,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa, 
and  sugar  beets,  are  deep-rooted;  others,  such  as  corn  and 
oats,  are  neither  very  shallow  nor  very  deep.  A  rotation  of 
crops  having  different  root  depths  would  do  more  to  improve 
soil  structure  than  a  rotation  of  crops  having  similar  root 
systems. 

The  greatest  effect  of  crop  rotation  on  soil  improvement  is 
gained  by  alternating  tilled  crops,  such  as  corn  or  cotton, 
with  un tilled  crops,  such  as  clovers  and  grasses.  In  this  kind 
of  rotation  tillage  will  bring  about  a  thorough  mingling  in 
the  soil  of  the  roots  and  crop  residue  of  the  previous,  untilled 
crop. 

Barnyard  and  green  manure.  —  The  value  of  organic  matter 
in  increasing  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil  and 
keeping  up  the  nitrogen  supply  has  already  been  emphasized. 
Organic  matter  derived  from  either  barnyard  or  green  manure 


SOIL  MANAGEMENT  49 

improves  the  structure  of  soils;  those  of  coarse  texture  like 
sand,  by  filling  up  the  large  spaces;  those  of  fine  texture  like 
clay,  by  separating  the  fine  particles  and  also  by  inducing 
granulation. 

Lime.  —  The  various  benefits  of  lime  were  summed  up  in 
the  previous  chapter  in  the  discussion  of  soil  amendments. 
Attention  is  called  to  it  here,  because  it  is  especially  useful 
in  modifying  soil  structure  and  should  therefore  be  considered 
in  any  discussion  of  soil  management.  In  dealing  with  sandy 
soils  a  light  application  of  lime  tends  to  make  them  more 
compact;  in  clay  soils  a  heavy  application  promotes  granu- 
lation. 

VARIATION  IN  SOILS 

Soils  differ  greatly  not  only  in  different  localities  but  in 
parts  of  the  same  locality.  There  are  all  variations  from 
almost  pure  sand  in  very  light  soils  to  almost  pure  clay  in 
very  heavy  soils. 

The  Bureau  of  Soils  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  has  made  a  very  complete  study  and  classification 
of  the  soils  of  the  entire  country;  maps  have  also  been  pre- 
pared showing  the  distribution  of  various  soils  in  several 
counties  of  each  state.  Several  of  the  great  agricultural 
states,  like  the  state  of  Illinois,  have  supplemented  the  work 
of  the  Bureau  by  more  extensive  and  detailed  description  of 
soils  within  the  state.  These  two  sources  of  information 
concerning  the  kinds  of  soils  and  their  distribution  are 
mentioned  because  of  their  value  for  reference  in  the  study 
of  soils  in  any  particular  locality.  Other  information  to 
assist  in  such  study  may  often  be  obtained  from  the  State 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  and  sometimes  from  the 
State  Department  of  Geology. 


50  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Space  will  not  permit  a  description  of  the  entire  list  of 
soils  included  in  the  classification  made  by  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Soils.  It  will  be  sufficient  in  this  brief  discussion 
of  soil  management  to  include  only  those  already  mentioned; 
sandy,  sandy  loam,  clay,  and  clay  loam. 

Sandy  soils.  —  We  have  seen  that  these  soils  are  composed 
of  coarse  particles.  Such  soils  are  easily  worked  and  are 
therefore  valuable  for  special  kinds  of  farming,  such  as  truck 
farming,  where  much  work  with  hand  tools  is  required. 
They  are  also  easily  warmed,  a  property  that  is  very  desirable 
when  a  long  growing  season  or  an  early  crop  is  needed.  This 
property  is  due  to  the  fact  that  water  readily  drains  from 
sandy  soils,  so  that  most  of  the  heat  received  from  the  sun 
is  used  in  increasing  their  warmth  instead  of  in  evaporating 
the  water.  Crops  may  often  be  started  in  sandy  soils  two 
weeks  earlier  than  in  heavier  soils. 

But  sandy  soils  have  two  serious  defects;  a  small  water- 
holding  capacity,  and  an  insufficient  store  of  plant-food 
materials.  To  correct  these  defects  is  the  greatest  problem 
in  the  management  of  sandy  soils. 

The  water-holding  capacity  may  be  increased  by  the 
application  of  organic  matter,  such  as  manure.  Such  material 
is  capable  of  holding  a  large  amount  of  capillary  water. 
Besides,  when  it  fills  the  spaces  between  the  larger  particles 
of  sand,  the  water-holding  power  of  the  sand  itself  is  increased. 
To  a  certain  extent,  water  may  be  controlled  by  handling  the 
soil  in  such  way  as  to  keep  the  particles  close  together,  es- 
pecially by  plowing  and  rolling.  If  a  plow  with  a  sloping 
moldboard  is  used  in  plowing  sandy  soils,  the  furrow  slice 
will  be  turned  without  breaking  much,  thus  tending  to  make 
the  soil  more  or  less  compact.  The  use  of  the  roller  after 
leveling  the  ground  with  a  harrow  will  also  aid  in  compacting 


SOIL  MANAGEMENT  51 

the  soil.  These  three  methods  when  combined  will  greatly 
increase  the  water-holding  capacity  of  sandy  soils. 

The  loss  of  water  from  sandy  soils  through  evaporation 
may  be  prevented  by  forming  a  good  mulch.  A  mulch  on 
these  soils  lasts  much  longer  than  on  heavier  soils.  In  fact, 
were  it  not  for  the  necessity  of  cultivation  for  removal  of 
weeds,  the  mulch  which  forms  at  the  surface  of  sandy  soils 
would  often  be  sufficient  to  prevent  loss  of  water,  without 
much  cultivation.  The  effectiveness  of  a  natural  sand  mulch 
may  be  seen  easily  by  examining  a  pile  of  sand.  If  some  of 
the  top,  dry  layer  is  scraped  away,  the  sand  below  will  be 
found  moist. 

The  ease  with  which  water  drains  from  sandy  soils  and 
the  naturally  large  spaces  among  the  particles  promote  good 
aeration.  Therefore,  no  special  measures  need  be  taken  to 
keep  up  the  supply  of  soil  air.  The  difficulty,  if  any,  will  be 
in  the  other  direction.  Owing  to  the  presence  of  so  much 
oxygen,  nitrification  is  apt  to  go  on  too  rapidly,  so  that 
nitrates  tend  to  be  formed  faster  than  they  are  needed,  and 
consequently  are  drained  off  and  lost.  These  losses  may  be 
reduced  considerably  by  compacting  the  soil,  as  suggested 
for  control  of  water. 

Large  applications  of  manure  serve  the  further  purpose  of 
supplying  food  material  which  is  so  much  lacking  in  sandy 
soils.  But  manure  contains  too  great  a  proportion  of  nitrogen 
to  that  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  to  be  used  to  advantage 
without  correcting  or  balancing.  According  to  the  facts 
presented  in  a  previous  chapter,  the  application  of  phosphoric 
acid,  in  the  form  of  both  rock  phosphate  and  acid  phosphate, 
would  seem  to  be  desirable;  the  rock  phosphate  to  furnish 
a  store  of  phosphoric  acid  to  be  made  slowly  available,  and 
acid  phosphate  for  immediate  use.  Since  sandy  soils  are 


52  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

naturally  deficient  in  potash,  it  is  necessary  to  make  up  this 
deficiency.  The  form  of  potash  used  makes  little  difference. 
The  one  selected  may  depend  upon  the  form  most  easily  and 
cheaply  obtained.  In  some  instances  wood  ashes,  containing 
about  five  per  cent  of  potash,  might  prove  to  be  more  eco- 
nomical than  the  expensive  muriate  or  sulfate  of  potash. 

If  manure  is  used  its  composition  should  be  taken  into 
account.  The  proportion  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and 
potash  in  manure,  expressed  as  a  complete  fertilizer,  is  about 
10-5-10.  This  should  be  balanced  by  the  addition  of  sufficient 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash  to  make  the  proportion  some- 
thing like  3-8-2.  The  amount  of  each  ingredient  to  be  added 
in  order  to  secure  this  proportion  may  be  easily  calculated 
by  the  use  of  simple  arithmetic. 

Clay  soils.  —  We  have  seen  that  clay  soils,  because  of 
their  fine  particles,  have  a  great  capacity  for  holding  capillary 
water.  Due  to  the  same  formation  they  also  possess  another 
valuable  quality  —  solubility.  For  this  reason  they  are 
regarded  as  rich  soils.  Material  in  a  finely  divided  condition 
presents  a  larger  surface  for  contact  with  water  than  a  coarse 
material  like  sand.  Consequently,  such  material  is  much 
more  soluble.  The  effect  of  the  size  of  particles  on  solubility 
is  shown  by  comparing  the  rate  at  which  powdered  sugar  is 
dissolved  with  that  of  sugar  in  lumps.  Sugar  in  the  former 
condition  dissolves  much  more  rapidly  than  in  the  latter. 
Even  glass,  which  under  ordinary  conditions  is  regarded  as 
insoluble,  if  made  into  very  fine  powder,  will  dissolve  to  some 
extent  in  water. 

To  offset  these  two  valuable  attributes  of  clay,  there  are 
several  disadvantages  which  must  be  overcome  as  far  as 
possible.  Clay  is  hard  to  handle.  It  is  sticky  when  wet  and 
hard  when  dry.  There  is  a  very  short  period  during  which 


SOIL  MANAGEMENT  53 

clay  is  neither  too  wet  nor  too  dry  to  work  to  advantage.' 
If  handled  when  too  wet  it  puddles  or  runs  together;  if  too 
dry,  it  forms  clods.  In  either  case  the  harmful  effects  may 
extend  over  a  period  of  several  years.  It  is  therefore  a  serious 
matter  to  decide  just  when  to  plow  or  work  such  soils.  A 
good  deal  of  experience  is  necessary  in  order  to  recognize 
the  right  time.  Even  then  it  is  not  always  possible  to  do  the 
work  at  the  time  when  it  is  most  needed.  The  successful 
handling  of  clay  soils  depends  upon  using  the  period  in  which 
they  can  be  safely  worked. 

How  clay  may  be  made  easier  to  work.  -  The  fact  that 
clay  becomes  sticky  when  wet  and  hard  when  dry  is  due 
largely  to  its  very  fine  particles.  If  these  particles  can  in 
some  way  be  brought  together  into  small  groups  or  granules, 
the  clay  will  lose  to  some  extent,  these  objectionable  features 
and  may  be  much  more  easily  handled.  Furthermore,  when 
it  is  in  a  granular  condition,  it  is  easier  for  roots  to  penetrate 
it,  and  it  will  also  retain  most  of  its  water-holding  power. 

A  granular  condition  of  clay  may  be  brought  about  by  the 
addition  of  lime  or  finely-ground  limestone.  In  some  way 
lime  causes  the  fine  particles  of  clay  to  mass  together  into 
small  granules.  The  effect  of  lime  on  clay  may  be  illustrated 
by  making  one  ball  of  wet  clay  and  another  of  clay  mixed 
with  a  small  quantity  of  lime.  When  both  balls  are  dry, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  one  mixed  with  lime  will  break  more 
easily  than  the  one  made  of  pure  clay. 

Another  method  of  improving  clay  soils  and  making  them 
easier  to  handle  is  by  applying  coarse  organic  matter,  such 
as  straw  or  coarse  manure,  or  by  growing  plants  having  large 
root  systems.  When  either  material  is  thoroughly  mixed 
with  the  soil  by  plowing  and  disking,  it  tends  to  separate 
the  fine  particles  and  produce  granulation. 


54  PRINCIPLES   OF   FARM  PRACTICE 

.  To  a  certain  extent  also,  thorough  tillage,  practiced  through 
several  seasons,  and  good  drainage  will  secure  a  better  con- 
dition of  heavy  soils,  by  bringing  about  granulation.  Alter- 
nate freezing  and  thawing,  and  wetting  and  drying,  are 
natural  means  tending  to  produce  the  same  results. 

It  would  be  good  farm  practice  to  employ  all  four  methods, 
especially  since  lime,  organic  matter,  tillage,  and  drainage 
have  other  important  uses  besides  that  of  improving  clay., 

It  happens  that  putting  clay  soils  in  the  best  condition 
for  handling  puts  them  also  in  the  best  condition  for  plant 
growth.  Granulation  increases  aeration,  allows  roots  of 
plants  to  push  their  way  more  readily  through  the  soil,  and 
promotes  better  drainage  from  the  top  layers,  thus  removing 
the  water  so  that  the  soil  is  more  easily  warmed  in  the  spring. 

Although  clay  soils  are  naturally  rich  in  plant-food  material, 
the  supply  is  by  no  means  inexhaustible.  The  material  taken 
out  of  the  soil  by  crops  must  be  replaced  from  time  to  time, 
if  permanent  fertility  is  to  be  maintained.  This  applies 
especially  to  organic  matter,  the  removal  of  which  not  only 
lowers  the  nitrogen  content,  but  also  affects  the  structure  by 
reducing  granulation.  Although  the  supply  of  phosphoric 
acid  is  greater  than  in  sandy  soils  it  must  be  replenished,  for 
which  purpose  the  rock-phosphate-manure  method  is  probably 
the  most  economical.  In  a  few  regions  such  as  the  limestone 
valleys  'and  uplands  of  central  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  the 
natural  supply  of  phosphoric  acid  seems  to  be  adequate. 
Potash  is  generally  abundant,  but  it  may  be  applied  to  advan- 
tage as  a  light  dressing  at  the  time  of  planting  or  sowing, 
since  the  growth  of  young  plants  is  greatly  stimulated  by 
potash. 

Loam  soils.  —  Loam  soils,  being  a  mixture  of  sand  with 
clay  and  silt,  have  some  of  the  properties  of  each.  To  a 


SOIL  MANAGEMENT  55 

certain  extent,  the  presence  of  the  one  overcomes  the  defects 
of  the  other.  Thus,  the  sand  in  loam  makes  the  soil  more 
easily  worked  and  produces  better  aeration,  while  the  presence 
of  clay  and  silt  increases  the  amount  of  plant  food  and  the 
capacity  for  holding  capillary  water.  Loam  soils  are  con- 
sidered very  valuable  because  they  require  less  effort  to  keep 
them  in  a  condition  of  good  tilth.  When  a  loam  is  very  sandy, 
the  same  measures  should  be  taken  to  improve  it  as  are  neces- 
sary for  improving  sandy  soils.  When  it  is  a  clay  loam,  it 
needs  treatment  similar  to  that  needed  by  clay  soils.  But 
in  either  case  the  soil  may  be  put  into  a  condition  of  good 
tilth  much  more  easily  than  sand  or  clay. 

The  same  attention  must  be  paid  to  keeping  loam  soils 
permanently  fertile  that  has  been  indicated  in  the  discussion 
of  sandy  and  clay  soils.  These  soils,  because  naturally  rich 
and  productive  with  a  minimum  of  labor,  are  likely  to  be 
neglected  until  loss  of  fertility  is  noticeable.  When  this 
point  is  reached,  it  requires  much  more  trouble  and  expense 
to  restore  the  fertility  than  would  have  been  necessary  to 
maintain  a  constant  or  increasing  fertility.  Besides,  in  the 
latter  method  there  is  the  additional  gain  in  securing  the 
advantage  of  a  uniformly  high  production  of  crops. 


SYSTEMS  OF  FARMING  AND  SOIL  MANAGEMENT 

It  is  clear  from  what  has  been  said  that  keeping  up  the 
soil  fertility  is  of  primary  importance  in  any  system  of  farm- 
ing. The  general  principles  to  be  applied  are  the  same, 
whatever  the  system.  The  differences  lie  in  the  kinds  of 
natural  soil,  in  climate,  in  crops,  and  in  animals.  For  example, 
one  farm  having  sandy  soil  must  be  handled  in  much  the 
same  way  as  any  other  farm  having  the  same  kind  of  soil. 


56  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

But  the  kind  of  crops  and  animals  produced  may  be  entirely 
different.  The  problem  on  any  farm  is  to  make  the  best  of 
the  soil  that  it  has;  restoring  its  fertility  if  need  be,  but 
always  keeping  it  up  to  a  high  standard  of  production.  How- 
ever modified  by  the  kind  of  farming  undertaken  or  by  the 
influence  of  climate  and  other  conditions,  this  is  an  essential 
basis  for  success.  Here  is  where  the  farmer  is  able  to  make 
his  contribution  to  the  conservation  of  our  natural  resources. 

The  real  test  of  good  soil  management  is  in  the  maximum 
production  of  crops  and  the  maintenance  of  soil  fertility  at 
the  same  time.  In  general,  the  soil  should  be  so  managed  as 
to  produce  the  highest  yield  possible  of  the  crops  best  suited 
to  that  particular  soil.  Since  soils  differ  greatly  in  natural 
fertility,  it  is  too  much  to  expect  equal  production  from  all 
soils,  but  not  too  much  to  expect  that  each  approach  its 
possibilities. 

Having  considered  at  some  length  the  application  of  the 
principles  of  soil  management,  we  are  now  ready  to  take  up 
the  question  of  what  use  to  make  of  the  soil.  By  this  is 
meant  a  choice  of  crops  that  will  secure  the  best  returns  from 
the  soil. 


CHAPTER  VII 
CROP  PRODUCTION 

THE  previous  chapter  was  devoted  to  a  summary  of  some 
of  the  most  important  principles  relating  to  the  management 
of  soils.  These  principles  should  be  applied,  as  far  as  possible, 
to  the  production  of  all  crops,  because  much  of  the  time  and 
labor  devoted  to  production  is  spent  in  handling  the  soil. 
If  the  soil  is  not  well  handled,  the  crops  are  not  likely  to 
produce  enough  to  pay  for  the  time  and  labor  spent  upon 
them. 

Crop  production,  as  a  farm  enterprise,  involves  two  things: 
First,  the  selection  of  crops  that  are  best  adapted  to  a  par- 
ticular farm;  second,  a  choice  having  been  made,  the  handling 
of  each  crop  so  as  to  bring  in  profitable  returns.  Although 
it  is  necessary  for  successful  production  to  know  many  facts 
about  each  crop,  there  are  several  important  points  relating 
to  selection  and  handling  that  are  more  or  less  common  to  all 
crops.  These  should  be  understood  before  taking  up  a  par- 
ticular crop. 

SELECTION 

There  are  at  least  three  things  that  should  receive  con- 
sideration in  making  an  intelligent  selection  of  crops:  First, 
the  crops  should  be  adapted  to  climatic  conditions;  second, 
they  should  be  adapted  to  the  soil  on  which  they  are  to  be 
grown;  third,  they  should  fit  into  a  plan  of  management 
known  as  a  cropping  system.  In  order  to  understand  the 

57 


58  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

relation  of  each  of  these  factors  to  crop  production,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  consider  each  separately  and  somewhat  in  detail. 

How  climate  affects  the  choice  of  crops.  —  In  relation  to 
crops  climate  plays  an  important  part.  It  affects  them 
chiefly  through  rainfall  and  temperature,  for  these  determine 
the  length  of  the  growing  season  —  the  period  from  seed- 
time to  harvest.  In  a  temperate  climate  like  that  of  the 
Corn  Belt,  this  period  continues  from  about  the  middle  of 
May  until  frost  appears  in  the  fall.  It  follows  that  the  grow- 
ing season  is  longer  in  the  South  than  in  the  North.  Since 
rainfall  is  abundant  in  the  Corn  Belt,  temperature  becomes 
the  main  factor.  But  in  other  parts  of  the  country  where  the 
temperature  is  relatively  high  during  the  entire  year,  as  in 
New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  Southern  California,  rainfall  be- 
comes the  chief  factor.  In  these  regions  the  so-called  rainy 
seasons  determine  the  growing  season  of  the  crop.  By  timing 
the  planting  so  as  to  take  full  advantage  of  the  rainfall,  it 
is  possible  to  produce  barley,  corn,  wheat,  beans,  and  many 
other  crops.  In  many  places  where  the  annual  rainfall  is 
low,  as  in  the  Western  States,  crops  are  made  independent  of 
rain  by  the  application  of  water  through  irrigation. 

Adaptation  of  crops  to  climate.  —  By  adaptation  is  meant 
the  use  of  only  such  crops  as  are  suitable  to  climatic  con- 
ditions; that  is,  whose  growing  periods  correspond  to  the 
season  of  temperature  and  moisture  favorable  to  the  best 
plant  growth.  For  example,  cotton  has  too  long  a  growing 
season  to  be  used  successfully  as  a  northern  crop.  The 
question  of  selecting  crops  suited  to  climate  has  been  pretty 
well  settled  by  experience,  especially  in  the  great  farming 
sections  of  the  Middle  West.  A  study  of  crop  production  in 
any  well-established  farming  region  will  usually  indicate  the 
kinds  of  agricultural  plants  best  suited  to  that  region. 


CROP  PRODUCTION  59 

How  soil  affects  the  choice  of  crops.  —  Crops  must  also  be 
suited  to  the  soil  of  a  particular  region.  This  is  next  in  im- 
portance to  their  selection  according  to  climate.  A  region 
may  have  the  right  climate  for  a  certain  crop,  but  the  soil 
in  many  places  may  not  be  adapted  to  this  crop,  or  the  re- 
verse may  be  true.  For  example,  rainfall  and  temperature 
may  be  favorable  for  potato-growing,  but  if  the  soil  is  too 
heavy,  the  results  will  not  be  satisfactory.  It  follows,  then, 
that  in  choosing  crops  to  be  produced  on  a  farm,  two  things 
must  be  considered:  one,  the  soil  requirements  of  each  crop; 
the  other,  the  nature  of  the  soil  on  the  farm.  The  soil  re- 
quirements of  our  staple  crops  will  be  considered  later  when 
each  crop  is  discussed. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  the  four  great  soil  classes 
(sandy,  clay,  sandy  loam,  and  clay  loam)  have  already  been 
sufficiently  described.  Attention  has  also  been  called  to  the 
work  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Soils  and  of  the  State  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Stations,  as  sources  of  further  infor- 
mation in  regard  to  soil  distribution.  Soil  maps  of  a  number 
of  counties  in  each  state  have  been  prepared.  When  available, 
these  maps  are  valuable  for  the  study  of  the  agricultural 
possibilities  of  these  regions.  Such  a  map  may  locate  for  the 
fanner  the  different  kinds  of  soil  on  his  farm,  thus  aiding 
him  in  making  a  selection  of  crops  and  in  managing  the  soil 
to  secure  larger  production. 

The  application  of  these  facts  to  crop  selection  is:  First, 
to  learn  in  general  the  kind  of  soil  best  suited  to  each  crop; 
second,  to  make  sure  that  the  particular  soil  which  is  to  be 
used  meets  the  needs  of  the  crop  desired.  It  may  be  when 
these  two  things  are  considered  that  the  crop  intended  will 
not  fit  into  the  soil  conditions.  In  such  cases  more  favorable 
crops  must  be  selected.  It  often  happens  that  a  change 


60  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

may  be  made  which  will  answer  the  purposes  of  the  crops 
originally  intended,  and,  at  the  same  time,  secure  a  much 
larger  production.  For  example,  alfalfa  may  be  desired,  but 
when  soil  conditions  are  examined,  they  may  be  found  to  be 
unsuited  to  this  crop.  But  these  conditions  may  not  be  so 
unfavorable  for  the  production  of  red  clover.  Since  red 
clover  has  nearly  the  same  uses  and  value  as  alfalfa,  it  may 
be  substituted  with  the  probability  of  a  much  greater  pro- 
duction. Many  disappointments  in  attempting  to  grow 
alfalfa  and  other  crops  are  doubtless  due  largely  to  a  failure 
to  consider  the  soil  needs  of  the  crop  in  relation  to  the  actual 
soil  conditions  on  the  farm. 

How  planning  a  cropping  system  affects  choice  of  crops.  — 
By  "  cropping  system  "  is  meant  the  operation,  through  a 
period  of  several  years,  of  a  definite  plan  of  crop  production 
for  the  entire  farm.  A  number  of  things  are  involved  in 
making  such  a  plan.  The  most  important  are  the  mainte- 
nance of  soil  fertility;  control  of  injuries  and  losses  due  to 
weeds,  insects,  and  plant  diseases;  the  disposal  of  crops 
(whether  as  feed  for  stock  raised  on  the  farm  or  as  cash  crops) ; 
the  competition  with  crops  of  better  favored  regions;  and 
distribution  of  labor. 

How  to  manage  crops  so  as  to  maintain  soil  fertility.  — 
Experience  has  shown  that  when  one  crop  is  grown  con- 
tinuously on  the  same  field,  there  is  a  decrease  in  yield,  often 
to  a  point  where  there  is  no  profit.  There  are  several  reasons 
for  this.  The  continual  removal  of  organic  matter  destroys 
good  tilth,  especially  by  reducing  granulation  and  the  water- 
holding  capacity  of  the  soil;  the  removal  of  plant-food  ma- 
terials tends  to  exhaust  the  supply,  particularly  of  nitrogen 
and  phosphorus;  certain  poisonous  substances,  called  soil 
toxins,  accumulate  and  interfere  with  plant  growth;  the 


CROP  PRODUCTION  61 

difficulty  of  controlling  plant  diseases,  weeds,  and  injurious 
insects  is  increased.  A  liberal  application  of  organic  matter 
may  reduce  the  evils  of  continuous  cropping  in  a  measure, 
but  not  enough  to  justify  following  such  a  system.  An 
experiment  with  a  1 2-year  continuous  crop  of  corn,  where 
clover  and  rye  were  used  as  green  manure  and  where  fertil- 
izers were  applied,  showed  but  slight  profit  compared  with 
the  yield  on  the  same  kind  of  soil,  where  rotation  of  crops 
was  employed. 

It  has  been  found  that  where  wheat  is  grown  continuously, 
the  loss  of  humus  from  the  soil  amounts  to  1800  pounds  an 
acre,  but  on  the  same  kind  of  soil  where  rotation  is  practiced, 
there  is  .a  gain  of  from  1500  to  2000  pounds.  The  various 
advantages  of  crop  rotation  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: 
It  increases  the  amount  of  humus  in  the  soil,  thereby  provid- 
ing for  greater  water-holding  capacity  and  better  general 
condition  for  plant  growth;  it  corrects  the  injurious  effects 
of  soil  toxins  or  poisons;  it  makes  possible  an  easier  control 
of  plant  diseases,  weeds  and  injurious  insects. 

The  two  chief  means  of  keeping  up  the  fertility  of  soil  are 
first,  the  use  of  barnyard  and  stable  manure;  second,  the 
rotation  of  crops.  The  latter,  is  of  especial  importance  in 
making  a  choice  of  crops  and  needs  to  be  considered  from  this 
point  of  view,  somewhat  in  detail.  There  are  two  essential 
features  of  a  good  crop  rotation.  One  is  to  include  some 
legume  in  the  rotation;  the  other,  to  include  some  cultivated 
crop  so  as  to  control  weeds.  The  following  general  rule  for 
rotation  of  crops  has  been  suggested :  cultivated  crops  prepare 
conditions  favorable  for  grains;  grains  prepare  for  legumes 
like  clover,  and  grasses;  and  legumes  and  grasses,  in  turn, 
prepare  the  land  for  cultivated  crops. 

The  kind  of  legume  to  be  used  depends  upon  soil  and 


62  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

climate.  In  case  legumes  do  not  grow  readily,  the  soil  should 
be  put  into  a  condition  favorable  for  their  growth.  Usually 
the  addition  of  lime  will  be  sufficient  but  in  some  instances 
better  drainage  may  also  be  required.  The  choice  of  other 
crops  in  the  rotation,  aside  from  consideration  of  soil  and 
climate,  depends  upon  the  kind  desired.  That  is,  any  kind 
of  a  crop  may  be  used  provided  it  will  yield  profitably  under 
the  system  of  farming  in  operation.  In  the  example  given, 
where  wheat,  clover,  and  corn  form  the  rotation,  corn  is 
the  chief  crop  and  the  other  crops  serve  to  aid  in  its  production. 
The  wheat  is  generally  used  to  secure  a  stand  of  clover  rather 
than  for  the  profit  in  itself  and  is  expected  to  pay  the  expense 
of  putting  in  the  clover. 

After  the  kind  of  rotation  has  been  determined,  the  farm 
should  be  divided  into  as  many  equal  parts  or  fields  as  there 
are  kinds  of  crops  in  the  rotation.  In  the  example  above, 
there  would  be  three  or  a  multiple  of  three.  The  shape  and 
arrangement  of  the  fields  depend  upon  the  lay  of  the  land 
and  upon  the  previous  arrangement.  In  order  to  facilitate 
plowing  and  cultivating,  and  the  division  of  fields  for  feeding 
purposes,  as  in  "  hogging  corn,"  long,  rather  narrow  fields 
are  to  be  preferred.  In  many  cases  an  entirely  new  arrange- 
ment of  the  fields  may  be  worth  while,  not  only  to  make 
better  provision  for  a  system  of  crop  rotation,  but  also  to  save 
fencing  and  labor. 

How  to  manage  crops  so  as  to  control  losses  due  to  weeds, 
insects,  and  plant  diseases.  —  The  losses  due  to  these  agencies 
are  very  great.  No  means  has  been  found  that  will  entirely 
prevent  such  losses  but  they  may,  to  a  certain  extent,  be 
controlled  by  proper  crop  rotation.  The  application  of  this 
method  of  control  and  of  other  means  is  considered  in  detail 
in  later  chapters. 


CROP  PRODUCTION  63 

How  disposal  of  crops  may  affect  the  choice  in  a  cropping 
system.  —  Farming  is  a  business.  Crops  are  produced  for 
profit.  Obtaining  a  profit  depends  not  only  upon  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  the  crops  raised,  but  also  upon  the  availa- 
bility of  markets.  For  example,  an  abundant  yield  of  onions 
of  the  finest  quality  might  be  produced  on  a  farm  so  remote 
from  markets  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  dispose  of  them 
with  profit.  Access  to  market  and  trade  demands  must  be 
considered  in  selecting  crops.  Usually,  in  long-settled  com- 
munities experience  has  solved  this  problem,  so  that  it  may 
be  advisable  to  follow  the  practice  of  the  best  farmers  of  the 
community.  In  new  .farming  regions,  the  selection  of  crops 
which  are  adapted  to  climatic  and  to  soil  conditions  and  which 
may  be  disposed  of  profitably  is  a  matter  not  always  easy  to 
decide.  Much  farm  land  is  sold  on  a  promise  of  abundant 
crops,  with  no  mention  made  of  marketing  conditions. 

Cash  crops.  —  Crop  farming,  although  extensively  practiced, 
is  not  only  less  profitable  than  stock  farming,  but  results 
sooner  or  later  in  a  loss  of  soil  fertility.  Crops  are  taken 
from  the  farm  and  sold.  Consequently,  there  is  a  continual 
drain  of  plant-food  material  in  excess  of  that  returned  to  the 
soil.  Humus  is  also  destroyed.  This  results  in  the  reduction 
of  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil,  makes  the  soil 
harder  to  keep  in  good  tilth,  and  tends  to  prevent  much  of 
the  plant  food  from  becoming  available. 

The  removal  and  sale  of  a  crop,  however,  may  be  justified 
in  general  farming,  where  farm  animals  furnish  fertilizer,  and 
a  good  rotation  is  practiced  to  keep  up  the  soil  fertility. 
The  farm  system  which  includes  producing  and  selling  a 
crop  for  cash  has  one  advantage  —  it  helps  supply  cash  for 
running  expenses.  Potatoes,  fruit,  melons,  tobacco,  sugar 
beets,  and  vegetables  are  examples  of  cash  crops. 


64  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Crops  for  feeding  animals.  —  Emphasis  has  been  placed 
upon  the  use  of  a  cropping  system  that  will  secure  the  up- 
building of  the  soil.  While  keeping  up  the  fertility  of  the 
soil  is  of  primary  importance,  it  must  be  managed  so  as  to 
make  farming  a  profitable  undertaking.  The  use  of  crops 
to  feed  animals  has  already  been  referred  to  as  a  means  of 
securing  soil  fertility.  This  use  of  crops  is,  at  the  same  time, 
one  that  is  profitable  from  a  business  standpoint.  A  study 
made  of  the  profits  on  some  farms  in  certain  counties  of 
Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Iowa  shows  a  much  greater  labor 
income  from  live-stock  farming  than  that  secured  from  crop 
farming.  Of  the  273  farms  included  in  this  study  (made 
in  1914),  194  were  stock  farms  with  an  average  labor  income 
of  $755;  and  79  were  crop  farms  with  an  average  labor  income 
of  $28. 

If  the  purpose  is  to  provide  crops  for  feeding,  we  have 
another  factor  to  consider  in  determining  the  kinds  of  crops 
to  produce.  Here  the  problem  is  to  develop  a  cropping 
system  that  will  provide  crops  adapted  to  climate  and  soil, 
include  legumes  in  rotations  and,  at  the  same  time,  secure 
the  right  kind  of  feed  for  farm  animals.  This  is  by  no  means 
an  easy  problem.  In  the  Corn  Belt,  the  chief  crop  for  feeding 
purposes  is  corn,  which  is  supplemented  by  clover  or  some 
other  legume.  Much  of  the  plant  food  removed  by  the  crops 
is  returned  to  the  soil  in  the  form  of  manure.  For  this  region, 
experience  seems  to  indicate  that  the  system  is  a  good  one 
both  from  the  standpoint  of  permanent  soil  fertility  and  of 
profitable  farming.  In  other  sections  of  the  country,  like 
western  Kansas  and  Oklahoma,  where  the  rainfall  is  too 
light  for  corn,  millets  and  sorghums  form  the  chief  feeding 
crops.  In  the  cotton  states  sudan  grass  and  some  kind  of 
grain  adapted  to  that  region  are  used.  These  examples  serve 


CROP  PRODUCTION  65 

to  illustrate  how  the  problem  may  be  solved  in  different 
sections  of  the  country  under  varying  conditions  of  soil  and 
climate.  In  each  section  there  are  several  kinds  of  crops 
which  are  adapted  to  the  particular  climatic  and  soil  con- 
ditions, and  which  are  valuable  also  for  feeding  animals. 

How  competing  crops  of  other  regions  affect  the  choice  of 
crops.  —  Crops  of  one  region  are  often  grown  in  competition 
with  crops  of  other  regions.  All  seek  the  same  market.  When 
the  cost  of  production  makes  it  unprofitable  to  compete  with 
crops  produced  elsewhere  at  less  expense,  another  choice 
should  be  made.  Usually  a  change  has  been  forced  by  experi- 
ence, and  the  custom  of  the  community  may  be  followed 
safely.  For  example,  farmers  of  the  New  England  States 
and  of  New  York  cannot  profitably  compete  with  farmers  of 
the  Corn  Belt  in  producing  corn.  Consequently,  the  New 
England  and  New  York  farmers  have  found  it  more  profitable 
to  produce  hay  rather  than  corn. 

How  labor  may  affect  the  choice  of  crops.  —  Labor  is 
another  factor  which  must  be  considered  in  arranging  a 
system  of  farming.  It  is  important  to  distribute  the  work  of 
crop  production  and  other  farm  work  throughout  the  year. 
Especially  is  it  necessary  to  plan  crops  in  such  way  that 
work  needed  on  one  crop  will  not  interfere  with  that  needed 
on  another  crop,  and  also  that  as  little  outside  help  as  possible 
will  be  required.  The  matter  of  securing  farm  labor  is  a 
serious  one,  so  serious  that  it  must  be  considered  carefully 
in  any  farm  planning.  If  farm  labor  must  be  employed, 
experience  seems  to  show  that  a  farm  system  which  will 
provide  work  for  hired  help  during  the  entire  year  is  the 
best  plan.  Since  the  labor  in  crop  production  is  limited 
largely  to  the  growing  season  and  harvest,  such  a  plan  is 
difficult  to  operate  successfully  unless  farm  animals  are  kept. 


66  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Selection  of  crops.  —  Throughout  this  chapter  the  im- 
portance of  selecting  crops  for  the  most  profitable  production 
has  been  emphasized.  We  have  seen  that  such  a  selection 
involves  several  things:  kind  of  soil  to  be  used;  soil  and 
climatic  conditions  needed  by  the  crop;  place  in  a  cropping 
system  in  order  to  maintain  soil  fertility  and  to  control  losses 
due  to  weeds,  plant  diseases,  and  insects;  the  use  of  the  crop, 
whether  as  a  cash  crop  or  for  feeding  purposes;  competition 
with  similar  crops  in  other  regions;  and  distribution  of 
labor. 

The  problem  is  to  make  a  selection  of  farm  crops  to  meet 
these  requirements  as  far  as  possible.  But  in  order  to  do 
this  we  need  to  know  the  most  important  things  about  each 
of  a  number  of  our  common  crops. 

The  next  chapters  will  present  in  detail  some  of  the  facts 
we  should  know  about  various  crops,  such  as  corn,  small 
grains,  and  forage  crops  that  are  especially  useful  in  general 
farming;  miscellaneous  crops,  such  as  cotton,  potatoes,  and 
tobacco  that  are  usually  regarded  as  cash  crops;  and  vege- 
tables and  fruits  which  are  important  in  some  places  as  cash 
crops,  and  which  should  have  a  place  on  most  farms  for  home 
use. 

HANDLING  CROPS 

Having  considered  some  of  the  most  important  points 
that  have  a  general  application  in  the  selection  of  crops, 
we  need  next  to  inquire  into  the  various  farm  operations 
necessary  for  crop  production.  This  will  include  selection 
of  seed,  preparation  of  the  seed  bed,  planting,  cultivation, 
protection,  and  harvesting. 

Seed  selection.  —  There  are  at  least  four  questions  in 
seed  selection  that  should  be  satisfactorily  answered.  Is  it 


CROP  PRODUCTION 


67 
Is  it  clean?    Is  it 


the  right  kind  or  variety?    Will  it  grow? 
free  from  infection? 

There  are  usually  many  kinds  and  varieties  of  plants 
included  in  any  farm  crop.  There  are,  for  example,  as  many 
as  1000  varieties  of  wheat.  Bread  wheats  are  subdivided, 
according  to  hardness  and  color,  into  soft  white,  soft  red, 


A  B 

Results  of  a  germination  test  of  crimson  clover  seed. 
A.  Poor  seed.        B.   Good  seed.    (U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

medium  red,  hard  winter,  and  hard  spring.  Each  of  these 
subdivisions  is  composed  of  many  varieties.  For  instance, 
the  medium  red  wheats  include  such  varieties  as  Fultz, 
Lancaster  Red,  and  others.  The  point  to  be  kept  in  mind  is 
that  many  kinds  and  varieties  of  most  farm  plants  are 
available,  thus  making  it  possible  to  select  the  one  best 
suited  to  the  conditions  of  production  on  a  particular  farm. 


68  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

A  Minnesota  farmer  would  probably  decide  to  raise  flint 
corn  rather  than  dent  corn,  because  the  former  matures  more 
quickly.  But  he  would  have  to  make  a  choice  among  several 
varieties  of  flint  corn.  He  might  choose  Smut  Nose  because 
his  neighbors  had  found  that  it  yields  well,  or  the  Golden 
Nugget  for  some  other  reason. 

If  plants  are  to  be  produced,  the  seed  must  be  capable 
of  germination.  There  is  no  way  of  knowing  this  except  by 
testing.  For  small  seeds  it  is  sufficient  to  choose  one  hundred 
seeds  at  random  and  place  them  between  two  pieces  of  damp 
cloth  or  paper,  keeping  them  moist  and  warm  until  they  have 
had  time  to  sprout.  The  number  which  germinates  determines 
the  percentage  of  good  seed.  The  rate  of  seeding  or  planting 
may  then  be  based  upon  this  percentage.  If  the  seed  tests 
fifty  per  cent  pure,  the  rate  of  planting  should  be  doubled. 
A  different  method  generally  used  for  testing  seed  corn  is 
described  in  Chapter  VIII. 

Seed  should  be  free  from  dirt  and  weed  seed;  from  dirt, 
because  of  its  effect  on  the  rate  of  seeding,  and  from  weed 
seed,  because  weeds  interfere  with  the  growing  crop.  It  is 
not  always  possible  to  get  perfectly  clean  seed,  especially 
among  small-seeded  plants,  such  as  grasses,  but  every  pre- 
caution should  be  taken  to  reduce  the  impurities.  The 
value  of  farm  seeds  free  from  weeds  is  discussed  in  greater 
detail  in  a  chapter  on  weeds. 

Finally,  seed  should  not  be  infected  with  disease-producing 
germs.  Seed  will  be  pure  in  this  respect  if  produced  by 
perfectly  healthy  plants.  But  this  assurance  is  not  always 
possible.  In  cases  of  infection  by  oat  smut  or  potato  scab, 
a  special  treatment  of  the  seed  will  destroy  the  infection. 
Details  of  the  cause  and  control  of  plant  diseases  will  be 
found  in  Chapter  XV. 


CROP   PRODUCTION  69 

Preparation  of  the  seed  bed.  —  In  the  previous  chapter, 
it  was  stated  that  the  greatest  effort  in  helping  plants  to 
secure  their  needs  for  growth  and  development  is  expended 
on  tillage.  Most  of  the  tillage  operations  have  to  do  with  pre- 
paring the  soil  for  seed.  In  other  words,  tillage  operations 
prepare  for  the  growth  and  development  of  plants.  They 
begin  with  plowing  and  end  with  some  operation  that  will 
leave  the  surface  level,  with  the  upper  layer  of  the  soil  finely 
divided  but  granular  in  clay  and  loam  soils,  and  somewhat 
compact  hi  sandy  soils.  Such  conditions  of  the  soil  are 
favorable  for  the  germination  of  the  seed  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  young  seedlings. 

In  this  connection,  it  is  well  to  keep  in  mind  soil  and  its 
relation  to  plants  as  discussed  in  detail  in  the  previous 
chapters.  The  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  means  putting 
into  practice  some  of  the  principles  of  soil  management. 

The  thoroughness  necessary  for  preparation  of  the  seed 
bed  varies  considerably  with  different  crops.  Some  crops, 
such  as  potatoes,  require  a  deep  open  seed  bed;  others,  such 
as  wheat,  need  to  have  the  sub-surface  well  packed.  Modi- 
fications of  the  general  procedure,  required  in  preparing 
the  seed  bed  for  particular  crops,  will  be  pointed  out  when 
such  crops  are  discussed. 

Planting.  —  This  refers  to  getting  the  plant  started.  In 
most  cases  it  is  done  by  sowing  seeds,  as  with  corn,  wheat  or 
oats;  in  others,  instead  of  seeds,  cuttings  are  used,  as  with 
potatoes  or  sugar  cane;  again,  plants  are  started  from  seeds 
in  a  specially  prepared  seed  bed  and  then  transplanted,  as 
with  tomatoes. 

The  requirements  for  planting  vary  so  much  among  farm 
plants  that  no  general  procedure  can  be  outlined.  Three 
questions  arise  with  reference  to  the  planting  of  any  crop: 


70  PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM   PRACTICE 

first,  when  to  plant;  second,  how  deep  to  plant;  third,  how 
far  apart  to  plant. 

The  answer  to  the  first  varies  with  the  length  of  the  growing 
season  and  climatic  conditions.  The  second  depends  largely 
upon  the  size  of  the  seed.  It  is  important  to  get  the  seed 
into  the  soil  in  the  best  position  to  give  the  plant  a  good 
start.  It  may  be  sufficient  to  scatter  the  seeds  over  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  as  with  some  of  the  grasses;  or  it 
may  require  a  uniform  depth,  as  with  corn.  The  third  de- 
pends upon  the  size  of  the  mature  plant,  and  must  take  into 
account  the  room  necessary  for  its  best  development.  Some- 
times, as  with  beets,  the  seeds  are  planted  thickly;  after- 
ward the  young  plants  are  thinned,  leaving  only  the  strongest 
and  most  vigorous.  If  the  crop  is  a  cultivated  one,  sufficient 
distance  must  be  allowed  between  rows  for  easy  cultivation. 
Information  concerning  these  three  points  and  other  points 
about  crops,  especially  garden  crops,  is  often  condensed  into 
a  tabular  form  known  as  a  planting  table. 

The  questions  of  depth  and  distance  are  often  best  answered 
by  the  use  of  a  machine  for  planting,  one  especially  designed 
for  planting  the  seed  of  a  particular  crop  or  easily  adjusted 
to  it.  Machines  are  now  available  for  planting  all  of  our 
common  crops.  They  not  only  do  planting  better  than  by 
hand  but  save  much  time  and  labor. 

Cultivation.  —  Crops,  known  as  cultivated  crops,  such  as 
corn,  potatoes,  and  cotton,  must  be  intertilled  from  time  to 
time  in  order  to  destroy  weeds  and  to  conserve  moisture. 
Cultivation  may  also  help  in  making  plant  food  available 
and  in  enabling  the  soil  to  retain  water  from  rainfall. 

The  principles  of  water  conservation  by  means  of  a  mulch 
have  already  been  presented.  The  effect  of  weeds  on  growing 
crops  is  too  well  known  to  need  further  comment  here.  How- 


CROP  PRODUCTION  71 

ever,  reference  to  accurate  studies  of  these  effects  will  be 
found  in  Chapter  XVI. 

Methods  of  cultivation,  or  intertillage,  are  essentially  the 
same  for  all  crops.  They  consist  in  stirring  the  soil  surface 
by  means  of  some  farm  implement.  The  most  effective 
implement  is  a  one-  or  two-row  cultivator  supplied  with  a 
number  of  small  shovels. 

The  amount  of  cultivation  depends  somewhat  upon  the 
nature  of  tlie  crop.  In  general,  cultivation  should  be  re- 
peated often  enough  to  keep  down  the  weeds  and  to  preserve 
a  good  mulch  until  the  ground  is  well  shaded  by  the  growing 
crop.  For  example,  four  cultivations  seem  to  be  enough  for 
corn.  The  yield  is  rarely  improved  by  more  than  four. 

Depth  of  cultivation  has  already  been  referred  to;  the 
conclusion  being  made  that  shallow  rather  than  deep  culti- 
vation was  to  be  preferred.  There  are  at  least  four  advantages 
in  shallow  cultivation:  it  gives  the  most  effective  depth  for 
a  mulch;  it  does  not  destroy  the  roots  of  the  growing  plants; 
it  leaves  the  surface  nearly  level;  it  requires  less  energy  to 
pull  the  cultivator. 

Protection.  —  The  growth  of  crops  is  interfered  with  by 
weeds,  plant  diseases,  and  insects.  The  effect  and  control 
of  weeds  will  be  referred  to  in  a  subsequent  chapter  on  weeds. 
One  of  the  problems  of  successful  crop  growing  has  to  do 
with  the  control  of  plant  diseases  and  insects.  Each  crop 
has  its  own  difficulties  with  these  destructive  agencies.  For 
example,  wheat  rust  is  a  disease  which  attacks  wheat,  and 
sometimes  timothy  and  other  grasses;  the  Hessian  fly 
confines  its  injuries  chiefly  to  wheat.  Some  of  the  most 
important  general  facts  relating  to  the  control  of  plant  dis- 
eases and  insects  will  be  found  in  Chapters  XV,  XVII.  In  the 
discussion  of  each  particular  crop,  reference  will  also  be  made 


72  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

to  protection  against  its  most  harmful  diseases  and  insect 
enemies. 

Harvesting.  —  The  chief  questions  arising  with  reference 
to  harvesting  a  crop  are  when  to  harvest,  and  how  to  harvest? 

The  time  to  harvest  is  determined  by  the  use  to  be  made 
of  the  crop.  For  example,  corn  should  be  harvested  when 
fully  mature  if  the  grain  or  fodder  is  desired,  but  at  an  earlier 
stage  when  the  kernels  are  well-glazed,  if  silage  is  to  be 
made.  Some  crops,  such  as  clover  and  alfalfa,  are  in  the 
best  condition  for  harvesting  during  a  very  short  period. 
Others,  such  as  cotton,  and  corn  if  husked,  have  a  rather 
long  period.  The  length  of  the  harvesting  periods  of  different 
farm  crops  is  of  considerable  importance  when  planning  a 
cropping  system  which  will  give  a  proper  distribution  of  labor. 

The  method  of  harvesting  depends,  of  course,  upon  the 
kind  of  crop.  But  it  should  be  one  that  gives  the  highest 
net  return.  With  small  production,  as  on  a  few  acres,  the 
profit  may  be  greatest  if  done  by  hand,  but  on  a  large  acreage 
machinery  should  be  used. 

The  harvesting  of  corn  furnishes  an  example  of  the  re- 
lation of  cost  to  method.  If  husked  in  the  field,  much  of  the 
fodder  will  be  lost  for  feeding  purposes.  Since,  as  a  rough 
feed,  corn  stover  may  be  substituted  for  hay,  whether  or 
not  to  harvest  the  stover  will  depend  upon  the  cost  as  com- 
pared with  the  value  of  the  hay  saved  in  feeding.  If  hay  is 
high  in  price,  harvesting  the  stover  would  probably  be  a 
good  practice;  otherwise,  it  would  not. 

Climatic  conditions  may  influence  the  method  of  harvesting, 
as  is  the  case  with  wheat.  On  the  Pacific  Coast,  where  sum- 
mers are  dry,  wheat  is  generally  harvested  by  means  of  a 
header;  while  in  the  humid  regions  of  the  east,  it  is  cut 
and  bound  into  bundles  which  are  placed  upright  in  shocks. 


CROP  PRODUCTION  73 

An  important  factor  influencing  both  time  and  method  of 
harvesting  many  crops  relates  to  their  preservation.  When 
the  moisture  content  in  the  harvested  crop  is  high,  it  is  liable 
to  be  injured  by  the  action  of  molds  and  bacteria.  Such 
crops  as  grains  lose  moisture  as  they  mature.  Delay  in 
harvesting  these  crops  until  they  are  well  matured  favors 
their  preservation.  In  1917,  an  enormous  loss  of  corn  oc- 
curred, owing  to  its  immaturity  when  husked.  On  the  other 
hand,  hay  crops  are  cut  before  the  plants  are  mature  and, 
therefore,  contain  much  water.  Curing  hay  is  essentially  a 
drying  process  in  which  the  water  content  is  reduced  below 
the  danger  point,  that  is,  below  the  amount  needed  for  the 
active  growth  of  molds  and  bacteria. 

To  avoid  this  danger  also,  it  is  important  to  protect  recently 
cut  crops  from  rain  as  much  as  possible,  as,  for  example,  by 
putting  wheat  in  shocks  and  hay  in  cocks. 

Most  of  the  farm  practice  in  harvesting  is  the  result  of 
long  experience  and  is,  in  general,  a  safe  guide.  It  is  well, 
however,  to  try  to  understand  the  reasons  for  the  procedure 
that  is  followed  in  harvesting  each  crop. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
PRODUCTION   OF   CORN 

Value  of  corn  as  a  farm  crop.  —  Corn  is  the  great  American 
farm  crop.  It  is  produced  in  nearly  every  state  in  the  Union, 
the  total  yield  for  1917  being  3,124,000,000  bushels,  with  an 
estimated  value  of  $3,500,000,000.  It  furnished  the  chief 
feed  for  62,747,000  hogs,  and  helped  support  43,291,000  beef 
cattle,  23,906,000  dairy  cattle,  and  a  large  number  of  sheep 
and  horses.  The  relation  of  corn  to  live-stock  production 
may  be  seen  by  comparing  the  two  in  any  large  corn-producing 
state.  For  example,  in  Iowa,  in  1915,  the  production  of 
corn  was  valued  at  $154,530,000,  with  a  corresponding 
value  of  $282,015,000  for  live  stock.  A  similar  relation 
holds  good  for  the  entire  country.  Furthermore,  when  the 
corn  crop  is  short,  an  increase  in  the  price  of  live  stock 
follows. 

In  spite  of  the  immense  total  production  of  corn  for  the 
entire  country,  the  average  yield  per  acre  is  low.  In  no  ten- 
year  period  has  the  average  exceeded  28  bushels.  Yet  boys 
and  girls  who  are  members  of  corn  clubs  have  produced 
more  than  100  bushels  on  a  single  acre,  in  many  states.  In 
view  of  the  success  of  these  club  members,  it  seems  reasonable 
to  expect  that  some  of  the  principles  of  corn  production 
learned  in  school  will  soon  be  put  into  practice,  and  in  that 
way  lead  to  a  high  production  of  com  in  every  community 
where  corn  is  a  common  crop. 

74 


PRODUCTION  OF  CORN  75 

Kinds  of  corn.  —  For  the  general  corn  crop,  except  in  the 
most  northern  parts  of  states  lying  on  the  Canadian  border, 
dent  corn  is  almost  universally  used  because  of  its  high  yield. 
There  are  several  varieties  of  dent  corn,  each  having  been 
developed  to  meet  the  conditions  of  a  particular  region.  For 
example,  the  region  of  dent-corn  production  has  been  ex- 
tended northward,  by  the  development  of  varieties  capable 


Distribution  map  of  corn.    Note  position  of  the  Corn  Belt,  perhaps  the 
most  favorable  area  in  the  world  for  corn.     (U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

of  maturing  during  the  short  growing  period  of  those  regions. 
In  other  places,  as  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Corn  Belt, 
varieties  have  been  developed  to  take  the  greatest  advantage 
of  a  rather  long  growing  season,  thereby  adding  to  the  yield 
per  acre.  Some  well-known  varieties  of  dent  corn  are  the 
Johnson  County  White,  Boone  County  White,  Reid's  Yellow 
Dent,  Learning,  Wisconsin  number  7,  and  Silver  King. 
Only  those  varieties  should  be  grown  which  experience 


76  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

has  shown  are  suited  to  a  locality.  Where  there  is  any  doubt 
as  to  the  variety  to  use,  the  State  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  should  be  consulted.  Corn  growers'  associations, 
such  as  the  Wisconsin  Associations,  are  doing  much,  by 
making  careful  tests,  to  find  varieties  adapted  to  special 
regions.  In  the  Far  North,  as  Northern  New  England, 
Northern  New  York,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and 
North  Dakota,  flint  corn  is  generally  used  instead  of  dent 
corn.  Flint  corn  does  not  yield  so  well  as  dent  corn,  but  it 

is  able  to  mature  in  those 
8-90          >86  _  northern   sections  because 

°f  *ts  snort  growing  season. 
Sweet  corn  and  pop  corn 
are  used  only  as  special 
crops,  not  in  general  farm- 
ing except  for  home  use 
and  for  cash  crops.  There 

ar6      S6Veral      Varieties      of 


•03  '06  '07  '08  '09  MO   1  1  -|  2  '13  '14  '15 

Graph    showing    fluctuations    in,  prices  eadl>    affording  ^  COnsidera- 

of  corn  and  hogs  over  a  series  of  years,  ble  range  in  choice  to  meet 

Note  that  a  variation  in  the  price  of  corn  <,npr:ai   nppri<i   ~nr|   rKmntir 

is  followed  later  by   a  similar  variation  SPC 

in  price  of  hogs  until   1914.     Here  this  Conditions. 
relation    is    disturbed,    probably    due    to        There     are      two      Other 
the  beginning  of  the  Great  War. 

kinds  of  corn,  but  they  are 

of  little  importance  compared  with  the  ones  already  men- 
tioned; pod  corn,  distinguished  by  a  husk  around  each  grain, 
and  soft  corn,  which,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  free  from  the 
hard  covering  of  the  kernels. 

Climate.  —  That  corn  is  extensively  raised  in  all  the  states 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  shown  by  the  map  giving 
the  distribution  of  com  production  in  the  United  States.  In 
the  extreme  northern  parts  of  the  states  on  the  Canadian 


PRODUCTION  OF  CORN  77 

border  the  growing  season  is  too  short  for  the  highest-yielding 
kinds  of  corn  to  mature;  while  in  the  western  states,  including 
those  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  rainfall  is  too  light  to 
produce  a  good  crop  without  irrigation. 

The  most  favorable  section  for  corn  is  the  broad  strip, 
known  as  the  Corn  Belt,  extending  from  eastern  Nebraska 
through  Iowa,*  Illinois  and  Indiana  to  eastern  Ohio.  We 
have  here  the  climatic  influences  most  favorable  for  the 
greatest  production  of  corn;  a  growing  period  of  about  five 
months,  a  high  temperature,  especially  during  the  second 
half  of  this  period,  and  an  abundance  of  rainfall. 

Soil.  —  Any  well-drained  soil  containing  considerable  or- 
ganic matter  will  produce  corn  profitably  provided  that 
climatic  conditions  are  favorable,  and  that  proper  preparation 
of  the  soil  and  cultivation  of  the  crop  are  secured.  Sod- 
land,  which  has  been  in  grass  or  clover  for  one  or  two  years, 
is  regarded  as  the  best  for  corn. 

Place  of  corn  in  a  cropping  system.  —  For  two  reasons 
corn  should  follow  a  legume  in  a  rotation.  First,  the  legume 
supplies  nitrogen  for  the  use  of  the  corn  plant  and  organic 
matter  for  increasing  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil; 
second,  the  deep  roots  of  the  legume  loosen  the  soil  below 
the  plow  line,  affording  better  drainage  and  better  conditions 
for  the  growth  of  the  corn  roots. 

Preparation  of  the  seed  bed.  —  When  the  land  is  plowed 
in  the  spring,  it  should  be  harrowed  immediately;  and  if  the 
soil  is  heavy,  it  should  be  disked.  Harrowing  is  important 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  clods  and  consequent  loss  of 
water.  If  it  is  well  done,  a  good  mulch  is  formed  and,  at  the 
same  time,  a  good  seed  bed  is  prepared.  Thorough  prepa- 
ration of  the  seed  bed  puts  the  soil  in  the  best  possible  con- 
dition to  grow  plants.  In  some  instances,  because  of  the 


78  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

nature  of  the  soil,  the  labor  required  will  be  greater  than  in 
others,  but  it  is  important  that  harrowing  and  disking  be 
continued  until  the  soil  is  well  prepared. 

Fertilizing.  —  The  best  fertilizer  for  corn  is  stable  manure 
applied  early  enough  to  become  well  rotted  before  the  crop 
is  put  in.  The  practice  of  spreading  the  manure  in  the  winter 
while  the  ground  is  frozen  is  a  good  one  for  the  Northern 
States.  The  manure  adds  nitrogen  to  the  soil  and  promotes 
good  conditions  in  the  way  already  described.  Manure  should 
be  balanced  by  the  addition  of  phosphate  of  some  kind  and 
a  small  amount  of  potash.  Most  soils  have  in  store  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  potash.  In  such  cases  only  enough 
need  be  added  to  supply  the  plants  during  their  early  grow- 
ing period,  the  time  when  they  need  it  most,  for  the  soil 
furnishes  the  rest. 

There  are  several  ways  of  applying  a  fertilizer  that  are  in 
common  practice.  The  method  already  considered,  that  of 
spreading  a  mixture  of  rock  phosphate  or  acid  phosphate  and 
manure,  will  provide  most  of  the  phosphoric  acid  needed. 
A  light  dressing  of  acid  phosphate  and  potash  spread  over 
the  ground  and  worked  in  with  a  harrow,  will  complete  the 
ordinary  fertilizer  requirements  for  corn.  In  this  way  there 
will  be  plenty  of  available  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  po- 
tassium for  the  young  plants,  and  an  abundant  supply  in 
store  to  be  drawn  upon  later,  as  it  is  needed.  Some  farmers 
fertilize  heavily  for  a  crop,  such  as  wheat,  in  a  rotation  with 
corn.  The  residue  from  this  application  remains  to  be  used 
later  by  the  corn. 

Seed  selection.  —  The  use  of  good  seed  corn  is  quite 
essential  for  production,  but  is  a  matter  much  neglected. 
Too  often,  just  before  planting  time,  a  selection  is  hastily 
made  from  the  crib,  with  a  poor  stand  and  inferior  crop  as  a 


PRODUCTION  OF   CORN 


79 


result.  It  takes  just  as  much  work  to  get  the  land  ready, 
to  plant,  and  to  cultivate  a  poor  crop  as  it  does  a  good  one. 
Therefore,  there  is  a  clear  gain  in  using  seed  corn  of  a  high- 
producing  strain,  having  perfect  germination  when  tested. 
It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  on  neighboring  farms  fields  of 
the  same  kind  of  soil,  which  have  had  equal  care  in  prepa- 
ration of  the  land  and  cultivation  of  the  crop,  showing  a 
marked  difference  in 
yield  in  favor  of  the 
one  where  careful  at- 
tention was  given  to 
the  selection  and  test- 
ing of  the  seed.  The 
only  sure  means  of 
knowing  whether  seed 
corn  will  make  a  good 
stand  is  to  make  a  test 
for  germination.  The 
value  of  making  such 
tests  on  a  large  scale 




"    \ 

- 

\ 

- 

\ 

— 

\ 

- 

\ 

- 

E 

\ 
\ 

P 

Two  methods  of  holding  ears  of  corn  to 
dry  for  seed. 


,      .  A,  B,  C,  D.  —  steps  in  making  a  sling  for 

was  emphasized  in  trie  corn  ears  from  binder  twine. 


E,  F,  G.  —  steps  in  making  a  seed  corn  rack 
from  a  piece  of  woven-wire  fencing  material. 


spring  of  1918.  Be- 
cause corn  of  the  pre- 
vious season  had  failed  to  mature,  there  was  an  almost  uni- 
versal shortage  of  seed  corn  throughout  the  Corn  Belt.  Ex- 
travagant prices  were  paid  for  corn  that  would  germinate 
although  it  was  inferior  in  other  particulars.  Those  farmers 
who  planted  corn  selected  from  the  crib  as  usual  failed 
entirely  to  get  a  stand.  While  other  farmers,  who  planted 
only  seed  showing  a  high  percentage  of  germination  in  the 
test,  had  no  trouble  whatever. 
Com  intended  for  seed  should  be  carefully  inspected,  ear 


8o 


PRINCIPLES   OF   FARM  PRACTICE 


by  ear.  Those  ears  lacking  in  good  shape,  size,  or  in  shape 
of  kernels,  or  that  seem  to  be  light  in  weight  should  be  thrown 
out.  A  germination  test  should  then  be  made  of  the  re- 
mainder. Such  a  test  is  so  familiar  that  only  the  main  points 
need  be  given. 

The  essential  features  of  the  germinator  are  a  device  for 
identifying  the  groups  of  kernels  with  the  ear  from  which 
they  are  taken  and  some  provision  for  moisture  and  warmth. 


Diagram  of  a  simple  seed  tester  for  corn  germination.    Described  in  text. 
(U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

The  ears  should  be  numbered,  or  so  arranged,  that  each  ear 
may  be  identified  readily  after  the  test  has  been  made.  At 
least  five  kernels  should  be  removed  from  different  parts  of 
the  ear  and  placed  in  a  square  of  the  germinator  numbered 
to  correspond  to  the  number  or  position  of  the  ear  selected. 
When  all  the  ears  have  been  disposed  of  in  this  manner, 
the  tester  should  be  covered  and  put  in  a  warm  place.  After 
five  or  six  days,  when  inspection  shows  that  germination  has 
taken  place,  each  group  of  kernels  should  be  examined.  If  a 
group  is  found  where  one  or  more  kernels  has  not  germi- 


PRODUCTION  OF  CORN  81 

nated,  the  corresponding  ear  should  be  set  aside.  Only 
those  ears  which  the  test  has  shown  to  have  perfect  germi- 
nation should  be  saved  for  seed. 

The  time  and  labor  spent  in  preparation  to  secure  a  good 
stand  of  corn  is » insignificant  compared  with  the  gain  in 
yield.  A  crop  that  must  be  replanted  rarely  matures.  By 
comparing  the  number  of  stalks  per  acre  in  a  perfect  stand 
with  the  number  in  a  poor  stand  some  idea  of  the  difference 
in  value  may  be  obtained.  In  a  good  stand,  there  might  be 
10,000  to  12,000  stalks;  in  a  poor  stand,  7000  to  9000  —  a 
difference  of  about  3000  stalks,  or  a  yield  of  more  than 
thirty  bushels.  Probably  the  difference  would  never  be  so 
great,  since  a  perfect  stand  rarely,  if  ever,  occurs,  but  this 
example  emphasizes  the  importance  of  good  germination.  It 
has  been  estimated  that,  in  Iowa,  the  stand  of  corn  has  been 
increased  fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent  since  the  practice  of 
making  germination  tests  has  been  generally  adopted  by  the 
farmers  of  that  state.  Thus  several  million  bushels  are 
added  to  the  annual  crop  of  the  state. 

Planting.  —  Corn  is  planted  in  rows  usually  three  feet, 
six  or  eight  inches  apart.  This  space  permits  easy  cultiva- 
tion and  gives  the  plants  sufficient  room. 

There  are  two  ways  of  planting  the  rows:  drilling,  in 
which  single  grains  are  planted  at  about  twelve  inch  inter- 
vals; the  hill  method,  in  which  three  or  four  grains  are  planted 
together  in  hills  spaced  to  correspond  to  the  distance  between 
the  rows.  Both  methods  are  so  familiar  that  further  details 
need  not  be  given.  The  yield  per  acre  of  drilled  corn  is 
slightly  greater  than  that  of  corn  planted  in  hills.  But  this 
gain  is  sometimes  offset  by  the  greater  ease  with  which  weeds 
may  be  kept  down  in  fields  planted  by  the  hill  method,  since 
cultivation  may  be  done  in  two  directions. 


82 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


Cultivation.  —  If  the  seed  bed  is  properly  prepared,  there 
will  be  a  good  mulch  with  which  to  start.  The  chief  object 
of  cultivation  is  to  maintain  this  mulch  in  its  original 

effective  condition.  The 
first  cultivation  may  be 
made  with  a  harrow,  for 
if  care  be  taken,  it  does 
not  injure  the  corn 
even  though  it  has  reached 
a  height  of  three  inches. 
Later,  a  cultivator 
adapted  for  such  work 
should  be  used.  The  first 
cultivation  may  be 
rather  deep.  After  that, 
by  using  a  cultivator  with 
small  teeth  the  cultiva- 
tion will  be  shallow 
enough  to  avoid  injuring 
the  roots  of  the  plants. 

The  number  of  culti- 
vations depends  upon  the 
season.  Experiments 
have  demonstrated  that 
more  than  four  for  an 
entire  season  will  not 
usually  increase  the  yield. 
During  the  early  part  of 
the  season  it  is  desirable  to  cultivate  after  each  rain  as 
soon  as  the  condition  of  the  soil  permits.  Where  a  good 
mulch  is  maintained  by  frequent  cultivation  weeds  are 
incidentally  kept  under  control.  In  rainy  seasons,  the  pre- 


Life-history  of  the  chinch  bug. 

a-  Egg. 

b,  c,  d,  e.   Developing  stages. 
/.  Adult. 

g.  Eggs  at  base  of  leaf  of  plant.    (Hase- 
man,  Missouri  Agr.  Exp.  Station.) 


PRODUCTION  OF  CORN 


vention  of  weeds  may  become  the  chief  object  of  cultivation. 

Insect  injuries.  —  At  various  times  during  the  growing 
season  corn  may  be  injured  by  a  number  of  different  insects. 
Cut  worms,  white  grubs,  corn-root  lice,  and  chinch  bugs  are 
usually  the  most  destructive. 

Cut  worms  are  most  dangerous  to  the  very  young  plants. 
It  has  been  found  that  fall  plowing  and  late  spring  planting 
reduce  the  injuries  caused  by  these  insects.  They  are  likely 
to  be  more  numerous  in 
land  prepared  from  old 
grass  sod.  If  such  land  is 
used  for  corn,  extra  pre- 
cautions must  be  taken 
against  cut  worms.  To  a 
certain  extent,  these  insects 
may  be  controlled  by  allow- 
ing corn  to  follow  a  legume, 
such  as  clover,  in  a  rotation. 

White  grubs,  the  larvae 
of  May  beetles,  are  trouble-    bodies  act  as  spores  which  may  infect  a 

Some   at   times.     The  same     corn  plant  producing  what  is  commonly 

methods    of    control    may    called  corn  smut 

be  used  as  those  applied  to  the  control  of  cut  worms. 

In  some  sections  the  corn-root  lice  are  very  destructive. 
It  has  been  found  that  fall  plowing  is  the  best  means  of 
control. 

Chinch  bugs  are  not  very  injurious  except  in  seasons 
when  there  is  little  rain.  It  is  the  habit  of  these  insects  to 
seek  grass  or  other  vegetation  in  which  to  spend  the  winter. 
By  burning  such  material  in  the  fall  the  danger  of  injury 
from  chinch  bugs  may  be  much  reduced. 

Other   insects,    such    as   wire   worms,    corn-stalk   borers, 


Development  of  a  spore  01  corn  smut. 

A.  Smut  spore  germinating. 

B.  After  germinating,  numerous  bod- 
ies  known   as   conidia   appear.      These 


84  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

corn-leaf,  beetles,  and  corn-ear  worms  may  at  times  prove 
destructive.  Space  will  not  permit  a  detailed  discussion  of 
them.  Consult  Chapter  XVII  which  is  a  general  account  of 
insects  as  related  to  agriculture. 

Diseases  of  corn.  —  Corn  is  not  subject  to  many  diseases. 
Its  most  common  disease  is  corn  smut,  for  which  no  direct 
remedy  of  practical  value  has  yet  been  found.  Fortunately, 
comparatively  few  plants  in  a  field  are  infected  with  smut. 
The  spores  of  corn  smut  remain  in  the  ground  over  winter, 
germinate  in  the  spring  and  develop  chains  of  new  spores. 
These  new  spores,  being  blown  about  by  the  wind,  may 
infect  any  part  of  the  corn  plant  with  which  they  come  into 
contact.  There  are  two  ways  suggested  for  reducing  the 
damage  to  corn  by  smut:  first,  to  destroy  the  smut  balls 
before  they  open  to  scatter  spores;  second,  to  rotate  corn 
with  other  crops.  Furthermore,  seed  selected  from  vigorous 
plants  situated  in  areas  free  from  smut  will  likely  produce 
plants  resistant  to  this  disease. 

Another  disease  now  being  carefully  investigated  is  corn- 
root  rot.  It  is  important  not  only  because  of  its  injury  in 
infected  fields  to  corn  plants,  but  because  the  same  organism 
that  produces  corn-root  rot  also  causes  a  disease  of  wheat 
and  some  other  cereals,  known  as  wheat  scab.  A  discussion 
of  plant  diseases  and  their  control  will  be  found  in  Chapter  XV. 

How  to  get  seed  corn  ready  for  the  next  year.  —  At- 
tention has  been  called  to  the  fact  that  seed  corn  selected 
from  the  crib  is  likely  to  prove  unsatisfactory,  especially  in 
its  low  percentage  of  germination.  The  selection  of  seed 
corn  is  an  important  matter.  It  should  begin  in  the  field 
before  the  corn  is  harvested.  The  following  is  one  method 
of  seed  selection:  Search  the  field  for  the  best  plants,  taking 
into  consideration  the  entire  plant,  including  the  ear,  and 


PRODUCTION  OF  CORN  85 

mark  a  number  of  them.  At  husking  time  the  ears  from  the 
marked  plants  should  be  kept  separate.  In  case  the  corn  is 
not  to  be  husked  soon  after  maturity,  the  best  ears  of  the 
marked  plants  should  be  gathered  at  this  time. 

As  soon  as  the  corn  is  brought  from  the  field  it  should  be 
stored  in  a  dry  place.  In  order  to  secure  a  free  circulation 
of  air  around  each  ear,  the  ears  should  be  arranged  in  such 
a  way  as  not  to  touch  each  other.  After  the  corn  is  thoroughly 
dry,  it  may  be  stored  in  metal  containers  where  it  will  be 
protected  from  moisture  and  from  rats  and  mice. 

If  the  plan  of  selecting  seed  corn  in  the  field  is  followed 
year  after  year,  it  generally  results  in  establishing  a  high- 
yielding  strain.  This  plan  is  known  as  mass  selection.  A 
plan  giving  quicker  results  will  be  considered  in  the  chapter 
on  Plant  Improvement. 

In  this  connection  attention  should  be  called  to  the  de- 
sirability of  studying  the  points  of  corn  so  as  to  be  able  to 
make  a  good  seed  selection.  Practice  in  corn  judging  is 
important  since  it  develops  an  appreciation  of  a  good  ear 
of  corn.  Score  cards  for  judging  corn  may  be  obtained  from 
the  State  Agricultural  College. 

Harvesting.  —  The  methods  of  harvesting  corn  are  so 
familiar  that  only  a  brief  reference,  by  way  of  summary, 
need  be  made.  There  are  four  general  methods. 

First,  cutting  and  shocking:  The  best  time  for  this  op- 
eration is  when  the  grain  has  hardened,  but  before  frost. 
At  this  time  the  crop  has  its  greatest  feeding  value,  taking 
into  consideration  both  fodder  and  grain.  The  usual  method 
is  to  allow  one  shock  for  each  square  of  sixteen  feet.  Where 
shocks  are  exposed  to  the  weather  there  is  a  considerable 
loss  in  the  feeding  value  of  the  fodder.  The  corn  may  be 
hauled  to  barns  and  shredded.  In  this  way  the  loss  oc- 


86  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

casioned  by  weathering  may  be  prevented,  and  at  the  same 
time,  the  material  is  put  in  a  form  to  be  more  readily  and 
completely  used  in  feeding.  Where  many  animals  are  to  be 
fed,  the  gain  in  feeding  material  will  more  than  equal  the 
additional  expense.  Besides,  the  inconvenience  of  subsequent 
handling,  especially  in  cold  weather,  is  avoided. 

Second,  husking  in  the  field:  This  work  may  extend  over  a 
period  beginning  with  the  hardened  grain  and  lasting  until 
after  frost.  Later  the  standing  stalks  may  be  utilized  for 
feeding  cattle  or  other  farm  animals.  If  it  is  so  used,  there  is 
a  much  greater  waste  of  fodder  than  when  it  is  shredded. 
It  is  estimated  that  25  per  cent  of  the  protein,  and  37  per 
cent  of  the  entire  digestible  nutrients  of  the  corn  plant  are 
in  the  stalks  and  leaves.  This  fact  should  be  considered  in 
handling  corn  crops  for  profitable  feeding. 

Third,  silage:  If  com  is  to  be  extensively  fed,  to  cattle 
especially,  the  method  of  preserving  corn  in  a  silo  has  many 
advantages.  There  is  less  loss  of  feeding  material;  animals 
relish  it  better  than  corn  harvested  in  any  other  way;  it  is 
as  easily  handled  as  shredded  fodder.  It  should  be  harvested, 
before  frost,  when  the  grain  is  well  glazed  and  beginning  to 
harden.  At  this  point  the  total  digestible  matter  is  about 
20  per  cent  greater  than  when  the  corn  is  fully  ripe. 

The  principle  of  making  silage  is  simple.  The  silo  itself 
is  preferably  a  tall,  air-tight  cylinder  ten  to  twenty  feet  in 
diameter,  twenty  to  forty  feet  in  height.  The  size  depends 
somewhat  upon  the  average  number  of  animals  to  be  fed. 
It  is  essential  that  a  layer  of  at  least  three  inches  be  removed 
each  day  after  feeding  is  begun,  otherwise  some  of  the  top 
layer  will  spoil.  The  inside  walls  of  the  silo  should  be  perfectly 
smooth,  in  order  that  the  contents  may  be  thoroughly  packed 
to  exclude  air.  A  special  machine,  or  silage  cutter,  is  neces- 


PRODUCTION  OF  CORN  87 

sary  to  cut  the  corn  into  short  lengths.  When  cut,  the  fine 
material  is  conveyed,  usually  by  means  of  a  blower,  J:o  the 
open  end  of  the  silo.  During  the  process  of  filling  the  silo, 
the  material  should  be  packed  by  tramping,  the  area  next  to 
the  wall  receiving  particular  attention.  By  thorough  pack- 
ing as  much  air  as  possible  will  be  crowded  out.  If  the  fodder 
is  dry,  as  sometimes  happens  when  it  is  cut  after  frost,  enough 
water  must  be  added  to  enable  the  mass  to  become  well 
packed.  As  the  silo  is  being  filled,  the  weight  of  the  silage 
material  tends  to  make  the  mass  more  compact.  For  this 
reason,  tall  silos  are  to  be  preferred  to  short  ones.  After  the 
filling  is  completed,  certain  processes  of  fermentation  take 
place  in  which  most  of  the  oxygen  of  the  enclosed  air  is  used 
up.  The  products  of  this  fermentation  prevent  further 
decomposition  of  the  silage,  except  at  the  surface  where  it  is 
in  contact  with  air.  The  principle  observed  in  preserving 
silage  is  similar  to  that  used  in  making  sauer  kraut;  that  is, 
such  conditions  are  created  that  the  products  of  partial 
fermentation  will  prevent  further  decomposition. 

Fourth,  allowing  animals  to  do  their  own  harvesting: 
This  method  of  harvesting  applies  especially  to  the  use  of 
hogs  for  this  purpose.  The  hogs  are  turned  into  a  field  to 
remain  until  they  have  eaten  all  the  corn.  This  plan,  known 
as  "hogging  corn,"  has  some  advantages:  it  saves  labor; 
it  wastes  little  feed;  and  all  the  animal  wastes  are  distributed 
over  the  field,  thus  adding  to  its  fertility. 

Distribution  of  labor  in  raising  a  crop  of  corn.  —  In  the 
following  tabulation,  the  labor  required  for  the  various 
operations  pertaining  to  raising  an  acre  of  corn  is  indicated 
in  terms  of  hours.  These  figures  are  averages  taken  from 
a  study  of  a  number  of  Ohio  farms. 


88  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Hours  per  acre 

Operation                                         Man  Horse 

HAULING  MANURE n-79  17-65 

CARE  OF  SEED 81  .08 

PREPARATION  or  SEED  BED: 

Plowing 5 . 44  13.16 

Harrowing 99  2.68 

Disking 1.02  2 . 96 

Planking 93  2.51 

Rolling 76  i .  61 

PLANTING: 

Drilling i .  50  1.82 

Planting  (2  horses) 93  i .  86 

CULTIVATING: 

Harrowing  after  planting 71  i .  64 

Rolling  after  planting 70  i .  40 

Cultivating  (2  horses) i .  68  3.36 

Hoeing 12 . 23  .... 

HARVESTING: 

Cutting  by  hand 9 . 06  

Cutting  by  machine 2 . 53  3 . 86 

Cutting  silage  by  machine 3 . 53  .... 

Shocking 3 . 53  

Picking  up  ear  corn  after  binder i .  61  2 . 23 

Filling  silo 23.23  19.50 

Husking  by  hand 14. 41  

Hauling  corn '. 3 .  oo  6 . 45 

Hauling  fodder 2 . 45  3-34 

Husking  and  shredding 1 2 . 73  12.02 

Shredding 4.95  4.33 

Hauling  shock  corn 7. 15  9.05 

Hauling  fodder  for  feed 6.01  8 . 81 


•      CHAPTER  IX 
SMALL  GRAINS 

WHEAT,  oats,  barley,  rye,  rice  and  buckwheat  are  known 
as  small  grains.  Their  relative  agricultural  importance  may 
be  seen  from  the  following  table  showing  the  total  production 
and  value  of  each  in  the  United  States  for  1916: 

Kind  of  Grain  Bushels  Estimated  Farm  Value 

Wheat 1,011,505,000  $930,302,000.00 

Oats 1,540,362,000  555,567,000.00 

Barley 237,009,000  122,499,000.00 

Rye 49,190,000  41,295,000.00 

Rice 40,861,000  36,325,000.00 

Buckwheat 15,769,000  12,408,000.00 

The  distribution  maps  show  clearly  the  various  regions  of 
production  for  each  grain.  There  are  several  facts  that  may 
account  for  this  distribution.  The  one  of  especial  interest  is 
that  where  an  area  of  large  production  of  a  crop  occurs,  con- 
ditions favorable  for  growing  that  crop  are  indicated. 

In  general,  the  problem  of  the  farmer  is  first,  to  decide 
whether  he  shall  use  any  of  the  small  grains  in  his  farming; 
then,  if  he  wishes  to  use  them,  he  must  next  select  those  best 
suited  to  the  soil  and  climatic  conditions  of  his  farm  and  to 
his  system  of  farming;  finally,  a  choice  having  been  made, 
he  should  know  how  to  secure  a  profitable  yield,  how  to 
harvest  and  dispose  of  his  crop. 

The  general  discussion  of  these  grains  which  follows  will 
be  limited  to  the  chief  points  which  should  receive  con- 

89 


go  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

sideration  in  making  such  decisions.  It  should  be  supple- 
mented by  a  careful  study  of  local  experience  as  to  success 
or  failure  in  producing  small  grain  crops. 

WHEAT 

Climate.  —  The  map  showing  distribution  of  wheat  marks 
three  rather  distinct  areas  of  high  production.     Climatic 


EACH   DOT  REPRESENTS 


Distribution  map  of  wheat.     One  dot  represents  200,000  bushels. 
(U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

influences  alone  will  not  account  for  this  distribution  since 
these  areas  have  quite  different  climates. 

The  first  area,  which  includes  the  states  of  the  Corn  Belt, 
has  rather  mild  winters  and  abundant  rainfall. 

The  second,  which  is  the  Great  Wheat  Belt,  lies  between 
the  western  boundary  of  the  first  area  and  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  It  includes  the  five  great  wheat-producing 
states,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  South  Dakota,  North  Dakota, 


SMALL  GRAINS  91 

and  Minnesota.  In  this  region  the  rainfall  is  low  and  summers 
dry  and  hot,  conditions  favorable  for  production  of  hard 
wheat  —  spring  wheat  north  of  Nebraska,  and  winter  wheat 
in  the  remaining  states.  In  the  Wheat  Belt  the  average  yield 
per  acre  is  low,  but  the  acreage  is  so  great  that  nearly  half 
of  the  wheat  crop  of  the  entire  country  is  produced  here. 
Extensive  wheat  farming  is  made  possible  by  long  stretches 
of  level,  comparatively  cheap  land. 

The  third  area,  which  includes  the  Pacific  States,  is  natu- 
rally adapted  in  many  places  to  wheat  growing.  Here  the 
winters  are  mild,  the  springs  wet,  and  the  summers  dry. 
These  conditions  are  favorable  for  a  large  production  of  the 
soft  varieties  of  wheat.  In  this  region,  the  high  yield  per 
acre  makes  wheat  a  profitable  crop,  even  on  rather  high- 
priced  land. 

Soil.  —  Well-drained  loam  and  clay  loam  are  the  soils 
best  suited  to  the  production  of  wheat.  Sandy  soils  are 
generally  too  coarse  to  retain  sufficient  moisture,  and  heavy 
soils  are  too  compact  to  allow  aeration  and  drainage.  Wheat 
is  said  to  be  a  "  delicate  feeder";  that  is,  its  plant-food 
material  must  be  readily  available.  For  example,  organic 
matter  should  be  well  decomposed. 

Relation  of  wheat  to  a  system  of  farming.  —  From  the 
foregoing  discussion  it  is  seen  that  wheat  may  be  grown  in 
nearly  every  section  of  the  country.  The  demand  for  wheat, 
imposed  by  the  Great  War,  extended  the  wheat  acreage  into 
many  places  that  were  formerly  devoted  to  other  crops. 
The  use  of  wheat  as  a  farm  crop  is  not  so  much  a  question 
of  whether  it  will  grow  well,  as  it  is  whether  it  will  contribute 
to  the  profits  of  the  farm. 

The  cost  of  raising  a  bushel  of  wheat,  in  1909,  has  been 
estimated  as  fifty-five  cents  for  the  Pacific  Coast  region, 


92  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

sixty-four  cents  for  the  Great  Wheat  Belt,  and  eighty-one 
cents  for  the  Corn  Belt.  Although  the  cost  is  greater  now, 
these  relations  are  doubtless  much  the  same.  Owing  to 
greater  cost  of  production  the  farmers  of  the  Corn  Belt  cannot 
compete  in  wheat  raising  with  the  farmers  of  the  other  two 
regions,  unless  the  difference  may  be  balanced  by  some  other 
gain. 

In  the  two  latter  regions  wheat  is  the  main  crop.  In  the 
former  it  is  a  secondary  crop  used  in  rotation  with  other  crops 
and  is  not  expected  to  contribute  directly  to  farm  profits. 

Wheat  raising  to  be  profitable  in  the  Great  Wheat  Belt 
must  be  conducted  on  an  extensive  scale.  The  acreage  must 
be  large,  though  a  smaller  acreage  might  yield  a  profit  if 
more  attention  were  given  to  the  preparation  of  the  soil 
for  seed.  It  is  a  question  how  long  continuous  cropping, 
which  is  generally  practiced,  may  be  continued  profitably.  In 
the  wheat-growing  sections  of  California,  where  continuous 
cropping  has  been  practiced  for  many  years,  the  yield  has 
decreased  greatly.  Such  experience  seems  to  indicate  the 
danger  of  this  practice.  Referring  to  California,  a  wheat 
expert  says:  "The  general  effect  of  the  past  and  present 
methods  has  been  the  development  of  poor  physical  condition 
of  the  land,  largely  the  result  of  depleted  humus,  until  the 
soil  refuses  to  produce  profitable  crops  of  the  commonly 
grown  varieties  of  wheat  under  the  old  system  of  farming, 
and  besides,  the  soil  has  been  made  foul  with  weeds." 

The  solution  of  this  difficulty  is  one  in  which  farmers 
engaged  in  wheat  growing  should  be  interested.  The  methods 
suggested  by  the  California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
offer  a  good  solution  and  apply  not  only  to  California,  but 
to  the  entire  Pacific,  Western,  and  Northern  wheat  regions. 
The  essentials  of  these  methods  are  restoration  of  the 


SMALL  GRAINS  93 

humus  by  green  manure  crops  such  as  rye  and  legumes; 
deep  plowing  followed  immediately  by  sub-packing  the  soil 
(by  using  the  disk  set  nearly  straight  or,  in  light  soils,  by 
using  a  sub-surface  packer);  and  thorough  preparation  of 
the  seed  bed.  The  success  of  these  measures  is  seen  by 
comparing  the  average  yield  of  14.5  bushels  per  acre  for  the 
entire  state  of  California  with  33.7  to  57.3  bushels  on  sandy 
soils,  and  43  to  48  bushels  on  heavy  soils,  where  this  practice 
was  followed. 

In  the  Corn  Belt  wheat  is  generally  a  secondary  crop.  It 
is  used  in  rotation,  in  part,  to  provide  a  cash  crop,  and  in 
part,  to  secure  a  stand  of  clover.  It  is  a  common  practice 
to  sow  wheat  in  the  early  fall  between  rows  of  corn.  This 
method  saves  labor.  It  gives  good  results  when  a  good  mulch, 
a  fine  seed  bed  and  freedom  from  weeds  have  been  secured 
by  thorough  cultivation  during  the  growing  season.  Because 
the  maturing  corn  crop  removes  plant  food  from  the  soil  a 
light  application  of  a  complete  fertilizer  will  be  needed  to 
give  the  young  wheat  plants  a  good  -start.  Instead  of  a  light 
application  of  a  complete  fertilizer  many  wheat  growers  prefer 
a  heavy  application  of  acid  phosphate  alone.  This  practice 
is  based  upon  the  fact  that  wheat  requires  for  a  high  yield  a 
liberal  supply  of  phosphorus.  The  place  of  rotation  will 
depend  upon  the  cropping  plan  for  the  farm.  It  is  valuable 
as  a  nurse  crop  for  clover,  affording  an  easy  way  to  secure  a 
good  stand.  The  straw  is  of  considerable  value  for  feeding 
live  stock.  At  the  same  time  it  will  make  some  return  for 
the  use  of  the  land.  Its  relation  to  other  crops  should  be 
such  that  the  care  of  the  wheat  will  not  interfere  with  other 
work  during  harvest  time. 

Seed.  —  The  first  consideration  is  to  select  the  kind  and 
variety  of  wheat  best  adapted  to  the  region  in  which  it  is 


94 


PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM   PRACTICE 


to  be  grown.  It  is  advisable  to  follow  the  advice  of  the 
State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  and  the  experience 
of  successful  wheat  growers  of  the  region. 

Next  in  importance  to  variety  is  the  quality  of  seed.  The 
grains  should  be  sound,  plump,  and  free  from  impurities. 
Small  grains  are  not  objectionable.  Experiments  have  shown 


Types  of  hard  wheat. 

i.   Fife.        2.   Bluestem        3.  Turkey        4. 
(U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


Durum 


that  the  size  of  the  seed  has  little  or  no  effect  upon  the  yield 
or  quality  of  the  next  crop. 

If  smut  infection  is  suspected  the  seed  should  be  treated 
as  follows:  with  a  one  per  cent  solution  of  formaldehyde  for 
bunt  or  stinking  smut;  or  with  water  heated  to  130  degrees  F. 
for  loose  smut.  The  details  of  the  hot- water  method  are 
as  follows: 

1.  Soak  the  grain  four  or  five  hours  in  cold  water. 

2.  Place  about  one-half  peck  of  the  grain  in  a  bag,  or  basket, 


SMALL  GRAINS  95 

and  immerse  in  water  at  a  temperature  of  from  110°  to  120°  F. 
for  about  a  minute. 

3.  Plunge  wheat  into  water  at  129°  F.,  and  barley  into 
water  at  126°  F.,  and  allow  to  remain  ten  minutes.    Movement 
upward  and  downward  while  in  the  water  will  facilitate  the 
penetration  of  the  heat. 

4.  Immerse  in  cold  water  to  complete  the  treatment. 

5.  Spread  the  grain  out  in  order  that  it  may  dry  quickly. 
Preparation  of  the  seed  bed.  —  The 

methods  of  preparing  the  seed  bed, 
already  suggested  for  California  wheat 
growers,  have  a  general  application.  In 
the  Wheat  and  Corn  Belts,  if  the  soil  is 
plowed  early  enough  to  become  well 
settled  before  planting  time,  it  will  be 
sufficiently  sub-packed  for  winter  wheat. 
A  compact  seed  bed  is  of  great  impor- 
tance, not  only  because  it  encourages  root  HESSIAN  FLY 
development,  but  it  also  tends  to  prevent  Magnified 
winter  killing. 

Time  of  planting.  —  Winter  wheat  should  be  sown  in  time 
to  allow  the  plants  to  get  well  started  before  winter.  Spring 
wheat  should  be  sown  as  early  as  possible  in  order  to  secure 
a  good  root  development  before  warm  weather,  and  to  permit 
an  early  harvest. 

Diseases  and  insects.  —  Smut  must  be  controlled  by 
treatment  of  the  seed.  Rust  may  be  controlled  through 
rotation  of  crops  or  by  use  of  rust-resisting  varieties. 

Another  but  less  known  disease  is  wheat  scab.  Injuries 
due  to  this  disease  seem  to  be  increasing,  the  loss  for  1920 
being  estimated  at  20,000,000  bushels.  The  disease  is  caused 
by  the  same  parasitic  fungus  that  produces  corn-root  rot. 


96  PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM  PRACTICE 

Being  an  intercrop  disease  it  is  especially  dangerous,  particu- 
larly in  regions  where  the  practice  of  sowing  wheat  in  corn  is 
followed.  Its  effects  are  more  like  blight  than  scab.  All 
parts  of  the  wheat  plant  may  be  attacked.  The  disease  may 
be  recognized  by  the  "  slightly  brown  and  water  soaked  spots" 
on  the  wheat  head.  These  areas  rapidly  spread  over  the 
entire  head  and  often  in  damp  weather  to  other  heads. 
Kernels  of  infected  heads  are  generally  small  in  size  and  very 
light,  making  it  possible  to  separate  them  from  the  rest  of 
the  grain  by  rescreening.  While  no  complete  methods  of 
control  have  as  yet  been  devised,  two  practices  are  suggested: 
one,  the  use  of  disease-free  seed  on  uninfected  soil;  the  other, 
avoiding  a  crop  rotation  in  which  wheat  follows  corn  infected 
with  corn-root  rot. 

The  Hessian  fly  and  chinch  bug  are  the  only  insect  enemies 
of  wheat  that  may  be  controlled  to  any  extent.  The  Hessian 
fly  may  be  controlled  by  early  plowing  and  late  sowing. 
Since  chinch  bugs  winter  in  stubble,  weeds  and  grass,  the 
remedy  lies  in  removing,  by  plowing  and  burning,  every 
thing  that  might  afford  winter  protection  for  them.  Especial 
attention  should  be  given  to  weeds  along  fence  rows  adjacent 
to  wheat  fields.  The  Hessian  fly  prefers  warm,  moist 
weather.  The  chinch  bug,  on  the  other  hand,  thrives  only 
in  hot,  dry  seasons. 

Harvesting.  —  In  humid  climates  wheat  should  be  harvested 
before  becoming  over-ripe.  Otherwise  the  grain  would  be 
likely  to  shatter.  Its  milling  value  would  also  be  reduced 
because  over-ripe  grain  is  not  uniform. 

After  cutting,  the  bundles  or  sheaves  are  placed  in  loose 
shocks.  The  shocks  are  usually  capped  by  spreading  over 
the  top  two  bundles  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  After 
this  operation,  the  wheat  is  likely  to  deteriorate,  especially 


SMALL  GRAINS  97 

in  rainy  weather.  To  avoid  deterioration,  when  there  is  a 
long  wait  for  a  threshing  machine,  for  instance,  the  wheat  is 
sometimes  taken  from  shocks  and  stacked.  The  extra  labor 
involved  is  regarded  by  some  farmers  as  less  costly  than 
possible  losses. 

In  arid  regions,  such  as  the  Pacific  Coast,  non-shattering 
varieties  of  wheat  are  grown  and  these  are  allowed  to  ripen 
fully.  Here,  a  header  —  a  machine  which  removes  the  heads 
only  —  is  frequently  used  for  cutting.  Sometimes  on  large 
ranches,  cutting  and  threshing  are  performed  in  one  oper- 
ation. 

Cost  of  wheat  production.  —  The  following  is  an  estimate 
of  the  average  cost  of  producing  an  acre  of  wheat  in  Indiana, 
in  1918: 

Preparing  the  seed  bed $3.25 

Fertilizing 2.25 

Seed 3.75 

Seeding 0.80 

Harvesting i .  50 

Threshing 2 .  oo 

Marketing 0.75 

Use  of  land 5 . 50 


Total $19.80 

The  prices  of  the  items  in  the  above  tabulation  are  high 
because  of  war  conditions.  The  cost  of  wheat  production 
varies  from  year  to  year.  This  illustration  merely  indicates 
the  various  items  to  be  considered  in  estimating  the  cost  of 
producing  an  acre  of  wheat.  This  will  become  lower  as  prices 
for  labor,  fertilizer,  seed,  twine,  etc.  are  reduced. 

This  estimate  is,  doubtless,  nearly  correct  for  the  other 
states  of  the  Corn  Belt.  In  the  states  of  the  Wheat  Belt  and 


98  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

of  the  Pacific  Coast  region  the  cost  per  acre,  based  upon  the 
estimates  for  previous  years,  would  range  from  $12  to 
$15.  The  chief  items  of  difference  in  expense  between 
these  regions  and  those  of  the  Corn  Belt  are  cost  of  fer- 
tilizers and  the  use  of  the  land. 

The  rate  of  sowing,  as  indicated  by  careful  experiments, 
ranges  from  eight  to  nine  pecks  per  acre  on  heavy  clay  soils, 
and  from  four  to  six  pecks  on  light  soils.  The  rate  seems  to 
depend  largely  on  the  tendency  of  plants  to  stool  or  tiller. 
Where  plants  tiller  but  little,  as  in  heavy  soils,  more  seed  is 
needed. 

Fertilizers.  —  In  the  older  farming  regions,  such  as  the 
Corn  Belt,  the  use  of  manure  and  some  form  of  phosphate, 
usually  acid  phosphate,  is  generally  recommended  by  State 
Agricultural  Experiment  Stations.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  the  use  of  fertilizers  for  the  crop  of  1918,  by  all  the 
wheat  growers  of  Indiana,  would  have  increased  the  average 
yield  per  acre  from  19.5  bushels  to  25  bushels.  Such  an 
increase  would  have  been  worth  more  than  $29,000,000  to 
the  farmers  of  that  state. 

OATS 

The  map  of  distribution  shows  that  oats  are  grown  in 
most  states  of  the  Union,  but  that  more  than  half  of  the 
crop  is  produced  in  the  states  of  the  Corn  Belt,  with  Illinois 
and  Iowa  in  the  lead.  The  large  production  in  these  states 
may  be  explained  by  the  common  practice  of  using  oats  to 
follow  corn  in  a  rotation. 

There  are  more  than  400  varieties  of  oats.  They  differ 
in  many  ways:  in  shape  of  head,  which  may  range  from 
widely  spreading  to  closely  compact;  in  color  of  grain,  which 
may  range  from  white  to  black  and  include  red,  yellow  and 


OATS  99 

gray;  in  hardiness,  spring  and  winter  oats;  in  time  of  ma- 
turity, early  —  which  have  a  short  growing  period,  late - 
which  have  a  long  growing  season.  From  an  agricultural 
standpoint  the  value  of  a  variety  depends  upon  its  per- 
centage of  kernel,  its  yield,  and  its  weight  per  bushel.  In 
order  to  secure  these  desirable  properties  oats  must  have  the 


EACH   DOT  REPRESENTS 


Distribution  map  of  oats.    One  dot  represents  200,000  bushels. 
(U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

qualities  of  hardiness,  earliness,  stiffness  of  straw,  and  re- 
sistance to  heat,  drought  and  rust. 

Climate  and  soil.  —  Oats  are  naturally  adapted  to  a  cool, 
moist  climate.  The  ideal  climate  is  one  affording  plenty  of 
moisture,  which  is  sufficiently  cool  to  insure  a  slow  ripening 
period. 

Oats  will  do  well  on  almost  any  tillable  soil,  but  if  the  soil 
is  too  rich,  the  plants  are  likely  to  lodge.  Since  the  chief 
soil  requirement  for  oats  is  moisture,  clay  soils  are  better 
than  light  soils. 


100 


PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM  PRACTICE 


System  of  farming.  —  Some  farmers  prefer  a  rotation  in 
which  corn  is  followed  by  oats  instead  of  wheat.  The  small 
amount  of  labor  required  for  putting  in  the  crop,  and  the 
value  of  the  straw  and  grain  are  perhaps  the  chief  reasons 
for  such  preference.  Oats,  when  not  too  thick  upon  the 
ground,  make  a  good  nurse  crop  for  clover  or  alfalfa.  The 
following  rotations  have  been  suggested  by  a  good  authority: 
For  sections  especially  adapted  to  corn  —  corn,  two  years  — 


Types  of  oats  —  four  varieties.    (U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

oats,  one  year  —  timothy  and  clover  one  to  three  years; 
for  Southern  States  —  corn  and  cowpeas,  one  year  —  oats 
followed  by  cowpeas  harvested  for  hay  one  year  —  cotton, 
one  or  two  years. 

Seed.  —  The  weight  of  grains,  rather  than  the  size,  should 
be  considered  in  selecting  oats  for  seed.  It  has  been  found 
that  heavy  seed  gives  better  production  than  light  seed. 

Seed  bed.  —  Oats  grow  well  in  a  shallow  seed  bed.  Be- 
cause of  this  characteristic  the  ground  may  be  disked  instead 


OATS  161 

of  plowed  unless  the  soil  is  very  heavy  or  in  poor  condition. 
This  practice  is  especially  successful  in  the  Corn  Belt  where 
oats  follow  corn  inta  rotation. 

Planting.  —  Sometimes  oats  are  sown  broadcast  and  then 
harrowed  in.  But  a  better  and  more  uniform  stand  is  ob- 
tained by  using  a  grain  drill  such  as  is  used  for  wheat. 

The  rate  of  sowing  is  based  upon  the  same  principle  as 
that  used  in  wheat  sowing  —  a  heavy  soil  requires  more  seed 
because  the  tendency  to  stool  or  tiller  is  less.  The  amount 
of  seed  needed  per  acre  ranges  from  six  pecks  on  warm,  light 
soils  to  three  bushels  or  more  on  heavy  soils.  When  soils  are 
in  good  condition,  eight  to  ten  pecks  per  acre  seem  to  give 
the  best  results. 

In  the  Northern  States  an  early  sowing  is  essential  because 
cool,  moist  conditions  are  necessary  for  the  best  growth  of 
oats.  In  the  Southern  States  winter  varieties  are  commonly 
used  and  are  sown  late  in  the  fall,  except  in  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee  where  they  are  sown  early  in  the  fall.  Here,  spring 
oats  are  sown  from  one  to  two  months  earlier  than  in  the 
North. 

Diseases  and  insects.  —  Loose  smut  may  be  easily  con- 
trolled by  the  hot-water  method  of  treating  the  seed.  It  is 
always  a  safe  practice  to  treat  the  seed  with  formaldehyde, 
as  suggested  for  wheat  infected  with  bunt.  Rust  is  often  a 
serious  disease,  especially  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  Quick-matur- 
ing varieties  sown  early  are  least  susceptible  to  this  disease. 

Insects  are  not  sufficiently  injurious  to  oats  to  require 
special  measures  for  their  control.  The  green  bug,  a  plant 
louse,  occasionally  causes  injury.  If  such  is  the  case,  the 
crop  may  be  harvested  early  and  used  for  hay. 

Harvesting.  —  To  secure  the  best  yield  of  grain  and  the 
highest  quality  of  straw,  the  oats  should  be  cut  in  the  dough 


102 


PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM   PRACTICE 


stage  of  the  grain.  At  this  stage  the  plants  contain  a  large 
amount  of  moisture,  therefore  especial  attention  must  be 
paid  to  thorough  curing  in  the  shock. 

The  general  procedure  for  harvesting  and  threshing  oats 
is  the  same  as  for  wheat. 

BARLEY 

Although  barley  may  be  grown  in  a  wider  range  of  climate 
than  any  other  cereal,  it  is  produced  extensively  in  five 

states  only:  Cali- 
fornia, Minnesota, 
North  Dakota,  South 
Dakota  and  Wiscon- 
sin. The  reason  for 
this  restricted  pro- 
duction is  largely  an 
economic  one.  In  the 
Corn  Belt  barley  can- 
not compete  with  corn, 
but  in  states  farther 
north  where  the  grow- 
ing season  is  too 
short  for  large  corn 
production,  it  may  do 
so.  In  California, 
barley  is  substituted 
for  corn  and  oats  be- 
cause the  two  latter 
do  not  thrive  there. 

The  varieties  of  barley  differ  in  several  ways:  the  heads 
may  have  two,  four,  or  six  rows  of  grain  and  may  be  bearded 
or  beardless;  the  hull  may  be  present  or  absent;  they  may 


Results  of  yield  of  oats  from  treated  and 
untreated  seed.  Plants  on  the  left  were  from 
seed  that  was  treated  with  cresol.  (Formal- 
dehyde would  have  done  as  well.)  Plants 
on  the  right  were  from  untreated  seed.  (U.S. 
Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


BARLEY 


103 


be  hardy  enough  to  stand  mild  winters;    the  grain  may  be 
mealy  or  hard  in  quality. 

If  the  grain  is  .to  be  marketed,  the  choice  of  a  variety 
depends  upon  the  quality  and  yield;  if  it  is  to  be  used  for 
feeding  farm  animals,  upon  straw  and  grain.  If  barley  is 
to  be  used  for  hay,  beardless  varieties  have  an  advantage; 
they  are  less  irritating  to  the  mouths  of  animals  than  the 


Distribution  map  of  barley.    One  dot  represents  5000  acres. 
(U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

bearded  varieties.  During  the  Great  War,  owing  to  the 
demand  for  wheat,  barley  flour  became  an  important  substi- 
tute for  wheat  flour.  For  such  use  the  hard  varieties  are 
superior  to  mealy  varieties  because  of  their  greater  protein 
content.  Much  of  the  grain  of  barley  was  formerly  used  for 
brewing.  The  mealy  varieties  are  generally  preferred  for 
this  purpose. 
Barley  will  do  well  in  most  parts  of  the  country  but  it 


104 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


thrives  best  in  a  rich  well-drained  loam.     Much  the  same 
method  is  used  for  raising  barley  as  for  wheat. 

When  it  is  used  for  hay,  barley  is  not  threshed  but  is  cut 
and  cured  like  other  kinds  of  hay.  It  is  then  stored  in  stacks 
under  cover  or  in  bales.  In  the  Western  States  barley  serves 


Distribution  map  of  rye.    One  dot  represents  1000  acres. 
(U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

a  double  purpose  as  feed  for  farm  animals,  especially  for 
horses.    It  takes  the  place  of  both  grain  and  hay. 


RYE 

Rye  is  the  fifth  in  importance  among  cereals  of  the  United 
States.  It  may  be  grown  in  most  states,  but  thrives  best  in 
the  North.  It  is  much  hardier  than  wheat,  being  capable  of 
withstanding  very  severe  winters.  Although  it  thrives  best 
on  good  soils,  it  will  produce  a  fair  crop  on  rather  poor  soils. 


RYE 


105 


Because  of  the  latter  characteristic,  it  is  frequently  employed 
as  green  manure  to  build  up  poor  soils,  especially  light  sandy 
soils.  If  used  for  ^this  purpose,  it  is  usually  sown  in  late  fall 
and  plowed  under  in  late  spring,  thus  allowing  time  to  plant 
some  other  crop. 
The  selection  of  seed,  the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  and 


Distribution  map  of  rice.    One  dot  represents  50,000  bushels. 
(U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

method  of  harvesting  are  essentially  the  same  as  for  wheat. 

Rye  straw  is  long  and  flexible  and,  when  straight  and 
unbroken,  is  in  demand  for  packing  and  other  purposes. 
Frequently  a  method  of  threshing  is  used  which  will  remove 
the  grain  without  breaking  the  straw.  In  some  of  the  Eastern 
States  the  straw  is  of  as  much  value  as  the  grain.  It  some- 
times commands  as  high  a  price  as  timothy  hay. 


io6  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

RICE 

In  the  United  States,  the  region  of  greatest  rice  production 
lies  in  Southwestern  Louisiana  and  Southeastern  Texas.  This 
region  produces  more  than  three-fourths  of  all  the  rice  grown 
in  this  country.  The  rest  is  produced  in  four  other  regions: 
the  Carolinas  and  Georgia;  the  bottom  lands  of  Louisiana; 
the  prairie  region  of  Arkansas;  and  the  great  river  valleys  of 
California. 

Rice  growing  has  increased  rapidly  of  late,  especially  since 
1915.  This  increase  may  be  explained  in  part  by  the  demand 
for  rice  occasioned  by  the  War;  and  in  part  because  the 
land  which  is  adapted  to  rice  production  is  becoming  more 
fully  utilized. 

During  the  four  months  of  its  growing  season  rice  requires: 
a  high  temperature,  not  less  than  75  degrees  F.;  an  abundance 
of  available  water  sufficient  for  irrigation  during  a  period  of 
about  ninety  days ;  level  land  with  an  impervious  substratum 
near  the  surface  to  facilitate  irrigation;  and  good  drainage, 
to  permit  the  rapid  removal  of  water  at  harvest  time. 

Aside  from  the  use  of  water,  the  methods  used  in  rice 
growing,  from  seeding  to  harvesting  and  threshing,  are  not 
very  different  from  those  followed  in  wheat  growing. 

BUCKWHEAT 

Buckwheat  is  not  a  cereal  but  the  same  procedure  for 
growing  true  cereals,  such  as  wheat,  answers  for  buckwheat. 

The  production  of  buckwheat  is  confined  chiefly  to  the 
Northeastern  States,  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  furnishing 
the  greatest  production.  It  will  grow  in  any  temperate 
climate.  It  requires  cool  summer  weather,  with  considerable 
rain,  to  produce  a  good  yield  of  seed. 


BUCKWHEAT 


107 


Outside  of  a  rather  limited  region,  where  summer  climate 
is  favorable  for  seed  production,  buckwheat  is  grown  chiefly 
for  green  manure,  ^hay  or  forage.  Its  advantages  as  a  crop 
for  green  manure  are  good  growth  on  poor  soils;  rapid 
growth;  its  high  percentage  of  nitrogen;  its  rapid  decay 
when  turned  under.  It  is  inferior  as  a  hay  crop  because  of 


Distribution  map  of  buckwheat.    One  dot  represents  50,000  bushels. 
(U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture) 

the  difficulty  in  curing  it,  but  it  may  be  of  some  use  when 
other  crops  have  failed. 

Sometimes  small  areas  are  planted  to  buckwheat  for  the 
use  of  bees.  The  flowering  season  is  rather  long  and  comes  at 
a  time  when  other  honey-making  flowers  are  scarce. 

The  time  for  sowing  buckwheat  may  be  adjusted  to  the 
demands  of  other  farm  work,  because  it  requires  so  short  a 
period  to  reach  maturity  —  only  sixty  to  seventy  days.  The 
procedure  for  growing  and  harvesting  the  crop  is,  in  general, 
the  same  as  for  other  cereals. 


CHAPTER  X 
FORAGE  CROPS 

What  forage  crops  are.  —  It  may  be  that  "  forage  "  origi- 
nally referred  to  those  plants  upon  which  animals  fed  in 
the  fields  or  pastures,  but  now  it  generally  includes  all  plants 
that  furnish  hay  or  rough  feed  as  well  as  those  used  for  graz- 
ing or  pasture.  Small  grains  and  corn  are  sometimes  used  for 
forage,  as,  for  example,  straw  of  threshed  grains;  oats,  barley 
and  rye  when  used  as  pasture  or  fed  entire;  and  corn  when 
used  as  fodder,  when  shredded,  or  when  used  as  silage.  In 
the  discussion  to  follow,  forage  crops  will  be  considered  in 
four  groups;  legumes,  grasses,  millets,  and  sorghums. 

Forage  crops  are  necessary  in  any  system  of  farming  which 
includes  raising  and  feeding  of  animals.  Fortunately  there 
is  a  great  variety  of  such  plants  that  are  available  for  this 
purpose.  Some  are  adapted  to  one  kind  of  climate,  some  to 
another,  so  that  the  production  of  forage  crops  is  possible 
in  most  parts  of  the  country.  It  remains  for  the  farmer  to 
make  his  choice  of  the  ones  best  adapted  to  his  particular 
region  and  system  of  farming. 

LEGUMES 

What  legumes  are. —  It  has  already  been  necessary  to 
refer  to  these  plants  several  times  in  connection  with  soil 
fertility.  The  word  legume  is  a  botanical  term  which  refers 
to  plants  that  bear  pods,  such  as  peas  and  beans.  Another 

108 


LEGUMES 


109 


I 


I 


characteristic,  common  to  all  legumes,  is  the  ability  to  form 
a  sort  of  partnership  with  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria,  in  which 
association  nodules  are  formed  on  the  roots. 

This  close  association  with  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria  may 
account  for  another  very  valuable  characteristic  of  legumes  - 
their  power  to   make   and  to   store   up 
protein,  an  important  substance  in  the 
feed  of  farm  animals. 

Value  of  legumes.  —  Legumes  are  al- 
most necessary  farm  crops  because  of 
the  characteristics  mentioned.  They 
enrich  the  soil  by  making  possible  the 
action  of  bacteria  to  convert  the  free 
nitrogen  of  the  soil  air  into  a  form  availa- 
ble for  plants  to  use;  and  they  furnish 
protein  to  balance  the  more  starchy  feed 
for  farm  animals,  by  manufacturing  and 
storing  large  amounts  of  protein. 

The  value  of  these  crops  has  long  been 
known,  but  not  until  lately  have  they 
come  to  be  regarded  as  essential  to  all 
except  the  most  specialized  kinds  of  farm- 
ing. There  is  no  crop  that  furnishes  so 
much  valuable  feed  for  live  stock  and 
at  the  same  time  enriches  the  soil  to  such  an  extent. 

Kinds  of  legumes.  —  The  use  of  legumes  is  favored  by  the 
fact  that  there  are  many  kinds  adapted  to  different  climatic 
conditions.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  finding  a  legume  that 
will  be  reasonably  productive  in  any  section  of  the  country, 
except  perhaps  in  very  cold  regions. 

In  choosing  a  particular  kind  of  legume  its  chief  charac- 
teristics and  requirements  must  be  considered;  such  as 


A     B     C     D 

Effects  of  soil  treat- 
ment on  yield  of  al- 
falfa. 

A.  No  treatment. 

B.  4500  Ibs.  of  lime- 
stone per  acre. 

C.  4500  Ibs.  of  lime- 
stone and  27,000  Ibs. 
of  manure  per  acre. 

D.  Same     as      (C) 
but  with   addition  of 
300  Ibs.  of  bone  meal. 
Acid  phosphate  might 
have  been  substituted 
for    bone    meal    with 
same  results. 


no  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

adaptation  to  climate,  special  soil  requirements,  methods  of 
seeding,  handling,  etc. 

.The  following  list  includes  the  most  important  legumes; 
clovers  (including  red,  mammoth,  white,  alsike,  crimson,  and 
sweet),  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  vetch,  Japan  clover, 
peanuts,  velvet  beans. 

Selection  of  a  legume.  —  As  has  already  been  suggested  the 
choice  of  a  particular  legume  for  a  farm  depends  upon  several 
factors.  In  general,  the  most  important  are  climate,  soil, 
and  the  system  of  farming  to  be  used. 

Climate.  —  Usually  it  will  be  a  safe  practice  to  use  the 
legumes  that  are  commonly  grown  in  a  region.  For  example, 
in  the  Corn  Belt  red  clover  is  generally  grown,  and  this 
legume  would  be  a  wise  selection  for  that  region. 

Soil.  —  The  soil  should  be  well  drained  and  furnished  with 
plenty  of  lime.  These  are  the  two  chief  requirements  of  all 
legumes.  Of  course  a  rich,  deep  soil  will  produce  a  much 
greater  yield  than  a  shallow,  poor  soil. 

Some  legumes  are  less  sensitive  to  soil  conditions  than 
others.  For  example,  mammoth  clover  will  often  make  a 
good  yield  on  soils  too  poor  for  red  clover.  Alsike  clover 
will  grow  on  rather  poorly  drained  soils.  Sweet  clover  will 
generally  grow  on  soils  where  other  legumes  fail.  Cowpeas 
are  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  soils. 

System  of  farming.  —  In  the  chapter  on  Crop  Production, 
emphasis  was  placed  upon  the  need  of  using  legumes  as  a 
means  of  keeping  up  soil  fertility.  They  are  also  needed 
for  feed.  The  kind  of  legume  raised  is  not  so  important 
as  that  a  rotation  should  be  established  by  which  each 
cultivated  area  of  the  farm  may  become  periodically  enriched 
by  legumes.  The  system  of  farming  should  cover  both  these 
purposes. 


LEGUMES  in 

In  the  Corn  Belt  red  clover  generally  fits  well  into  a  system 
of  farming  where  animals  are  to  be  fed.  In  the  South  cow- 
peas,  soy  beans  and  velvet  beans  are  commonly  grown. 
Here  especially  the  system  of  farming  must  include  soil 
improvement.  Cowpeas  and  velvet  beans  are  well  adapted 
for  enriching  the  soil  and  also  for  feeding  farm  animals. 
If  silage  is  to  be  made,  soy  beans  or  cowpeas  fit  well  into 
the  system.  Silage  made  of  either  of  these  legumes  and  corn 
usually  makes  a  better  ration  than  a  silage  made  of  corn 
alone. 

Raising  the  crop.  —  Each  legume  must  be  raised  by  the 
methods  best  suited  to  its  particular  needs.  Space  will  not 
permit  a  detailed  consideration  of  all  these  methods,  but 
there  are  some  general  principles  that  apply  to  all  legumes. 
These  principles  may  be  briefly  summed  up  as  follows:  the 
soil  should  be  as  well  drained  as  possible,  and  any  acidity 
corrected  by  use  of  lime;  the  seed  bed  should  be  well  pre- 
pared; the  seed  should  have  a  high  percentage  of  germina- 
tion and  be  free  from  weed  seeds;  the  harvesting  should  be 
timed  to  give  the  greatest  yield  of  digestible  nutrients;  the 
method  of  harvesting  should  provide  for  thorough  curing  of 
the  hay. 

Red  clover.  —  This  legume  is  grown  very  generally  through- 
out the  states  of  the  Com  Belt,  and  to  some  extent  in  most 
of  the  other  states.  The  importance  of  clover  is  indicated 
by  the  statement  made  by  the  Illinois  State  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  to  farmers  of  Illinois  "that  the  growing 
of  clover  on  somewhere  near  one-fourth  the  tillable  land  is 
absolutely  essential  in  the  permanent  maintenance  of  the 
productivity  of  the  state." 

The  value  of  red  clover  lies  in  its  ability  to  enrich  the  soil 
by  fixation  of  nitrogen,  its  large,  root  system  penetrating  the 


112  PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM  PRACTICE 

soil  deeply  and  promoting  good  aeration,  and  its  high  feeding 
value  for  all  kinds  of  farm  animals.  Besides,  being  a  biennial 
plant,  it  is  well  adapted  for  use  in  short  rotations  of 
crops. 

For  successful  production  of  red  clover  there  are  three 
requirements  that  should  be  observed:  favorable  soil  con- 
ditions, getting  a  good  stand,  and  fall  and  winter  treatment. 

Favorable  soil  conditions  include  good  drainage,  enough 
lime  to  neutralize  soil  acids,  phosphorus,  and  organic  matter. 
Lack  of  any  one  of  these  will  likely  lead  to  failure. 

Frequent  causes  of  failure  in  growing  red  clover  are  poorly 
prepared  seed  bed,  rank-growing  nurse  crop,  and  too  heavily 
seeded  nurse  crop.  Clover  requires  a  good  seed  bed  having 
a  fine  surface  and  firm  sub-surface.  The  use  of  a  corrugated 
roller  immediately  before  or  just  after  seeding  is  a  good  prac- 
tice for  it  not  only  improves  the  seed  bed  for  the  clover  but 
also  for  the  small -grain  nurse  crop.  Early  maturing  nurse 
crops,  not  too  heavily  seeded,  seem  to  give  the  young  clover 
plants  the  best  start.  Wheat  because  of  its  early  harvest  is 
regarded  by  many  farmers  as  the  most  desirable  nurse  crop 
for  clover. 

By  fall  and  winter  treatment  is  meant  protecting  the  clover 
that  has  become  established  from  winter  injury.  Too  late 
or  too  close  pasturing  in  the  fall  will  leave  the  ground  bare 
and  the  young  clover  plants  without  winter  protection. 
Sometimes  there  is  a  heavy  growth  in  the  fall.  In  such  cases 
careful  pasturing  or  clipping  should  be  done  to  prevent  over- 
development of  the  clover. 

Clover  for  hay  should  be  cut  when  about  one-third  of  the 
heads  have  become  brown  so  as  to  give  the  maximum  yield 
of  total  dry  matter  and  digestible  nutrients. 

Other  clovers.  —  Mammoth  clover  is  too  coarse  for  the  best 


LEGUMES  113 

quality  of  hay.  It  is  superior  to  red  clover  for  renewing  or- 
ganic matter  in  depleted  soils  and  less  exacting  in  its  require- 
ments for  good  growth. 

Sweet  clover  is  not  relished  by  farm  animals,  at  least  not 
until  they  are  forced  to  acquire  a  taste  for  it.  It  may  be  used 
for  hay  or  for  grazing  in  emergencies  due  to  shortage  of  other 
forage  crops.  Its  chief  value  is  its  hardiness  and  ability  to 
grow  under  unfavorable  conditions.  Its  most  important 
general  use  is  to  build  soils,  being  especially  useful  on  eroded 
surfaces  or  on  so-called  worn-out  soils. 

Japan  clover  (Lespedeza)  is  an  annual  clover  that  readily 
seeds  itself.  It  is  grown  in  most  of  the  Southern  States  in 
pastures  for  grazing  purposes.  On  account  of  its  light  yield 
it  is  not  often  used  as  a  hay  crop. 

Alfalfa.  —  Alfalfa  is  a  superior  forage  plant  because  of 
its  high  feeding  value  and  large  yield.  As  compared  with 
red  clover  it  contains  9  per  cent  more  digestible  dry  matter 
and  4.6  per  cent  more  digestible  protein,  and  yields  about 
twice  as  much  green  forage.  As  a  soil  builder  it  is  also  superior. 
It  has  a  heavier  and  deeper  root  system  than  clover,  making  it 
possible  for  it  to  reach  and  use  plant  food  at  a  great 
depth. 

It  will  grow  on  a  wide  range  of  soils  if  conditions  are  favor- 
able, These  conditions  are  good  drainage,  sufficient  lime, 
and  presence  of  organic  matter.  All  three  of  these  conditions 
must  be  met  for  success  in  growing  alfalfa. 

Two  methods  are  employed  in  getting  a  stand  of  alfalfa. 
Both  require  a  well  prepared  seed  bed  —  deeply  plowed,  well 
firmed  and  finely  surfaced,  a*-  and  for  most  soils,  inocula- 
tion. One  method 'for  getting  a  stand  is  spring  seeding  with 
a  light  nurse  crop.  The  difficulty  with  this  method  lies  in 
the  control  of  weeds.  They  are  not  always  kept  down,  by.  the 


114  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

nurse  crop.  The  other  method  is  late  summer  seeding.  The 
advantage  of  this  method  is  that  it  is  often  possible  to  use 
ground  that  has  produced  a  crop  during  that  season.  When 
such  a  field  is  used  it  is  desirable  to  make  a  liberal  application 
of  well-rotted  manure  and  work  it  thoroughly  into  the  seed 
bed.  Some  farmers  follow  the  practice  of  summer  fallowing, 
keeping  down  the  weeds  during  the  summer  by  frequent 
tillage. 

Alfalfa  is  a  perennial.  It  may  be  grown  without  renewal 
for  many  years.  Five  or  six  years  usually  cover  the  most 
productive  period.  Some  farmers  use  alfalfa  in  a  long  rota- 
tation;  others  prefer  to  set  aside  a  separate  field  so  that  the 
regular  rotation  of  the  farm  will  not  be  interfered  with.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  in  growing  alfalfa  for  the  first  time 
a  farmer  should  begin  with  a  small  area  —  one  or  two  acres 
-  and  gradually,  as  he  gains  experience,  put  additional  land 
into  alfalfa  until  his  needs  are  satisfied. 

Alfalfa  should  be  cut  when  new  shoots  are  appearing  at 
the  crown  of  the  plant.  Hay  made  at  this  time  will  have  a 
much  higher  feeding  value  than  if  made  from  more  mature 
plants. 

Vetch.  —  Common  vetch  is  grown  for  hay  on  the  Pacific 
coast  and  in  the  Southern  States.  Hairy  or  Russian  vetch 
is  very  hardy  and  can  be  grown  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 
It  is  frequently  used  after  a  failure  to  secure  a  stand  of  red 
clover.  Some  farmers  sow  it  in  their  corn  fields  at  the  last 
cultivation  for  fall  and  early  spring  grazing,  and  for  green 
manuring. 

Cowpea,  soy  bean,  velvet  bean.  —  These  plants  are  exten- 
sively grown  in  the  Southern  States  chiefly  as  hay  crops.  Cow- 
peas  and  soy  beans  are  generally  grown  in  the  Northern  States 
for  both  forage  and  seed.  The  hay  from  all  three  plants  has 


GRASSES  115 

much  the  same  value  as  alfalfa  hay.    The  seed  is  very  rich  in 
protein  and  is  valuable  for  balancing  starchy  rations. 


GRASSES 

From  an  agricultural  viewpoint,  grasses  may  be  considered 
as  belonging  to  two  groups,  pasture  grasses  and  meadow 
grasses.  Either  of  these  grasses  may  be  used  for  pasture  or 
may  be  cut  and  used  for  hay. 

Pasture  grasses.  —  This  group  includes  our  various  native 
grasses.  The  best  known  is  Kentucky  blue  grass.  On  the 
Western  Plains  there  is  a  mixture  of  several  kinds  of  native 
wild  grasses,  called  prairie  grass.  Near  the  sea  shore  level 
areas  are  covered  with  several  kinds  of  wild  grasses  col- 
lectively known  as  salt  or  marsh  grass.  On  the  Pacific  slope 
various  grasses,  such  as  wild  oats,  furnish  good  pasture  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  rainy  season  and  for  some  time  after- 
ward. Among  the  mountains  occur  level  stretches,  known 
as  mountain  meadows,  that  are  covered  with  many  kinds  of 
grasses  useful  for  pasturage.  In  all  these  sections  native 
grasses  provide  valuable  pasturage  on  land  not  under  culti- 
vation. 

Pastures  are  of  two  kinds,  permanent  and  temporary. 
Those  parts  of  a  farm  that  cannot  be  cultivated  with  profit, 
such  as  hill  land,  may  become  permanent  pastures.  In  this 
way  unused  or  waste  land  becomes  productive.  In  the  case 
of  slopes  and  hillsides,  the  sod  also  serves  as  a  protection 
against  soil  loss  through  erosion. 

Temporary  pastures  are  those  grown  in  rotation  with 
other  crops.  They  are  often  a  mixture  of  grasses  and  legumes 
and  remain  from  one  to  three  years,  according  to  the  system 
of  rotation  employed. 


n6 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


Meadow  grasses.  —  Grasses  are  especially  valuable  for 
hay,  because  they  dry  easily  when  cut  and  are  therefore 
easily  preserved  for  stock  feed.  Although  they  do  not  have 
as  great  food  value  as  legumes,  they  are  much  relished  by 
stock. 

Among  the  grasses  used  for  hay,  timothy  has  the  first 
place,  being  adapted  to  the  climatic  conditions  throughout 

the  Northeastern  and 
Rocky  Mountain 
States.  In  the  Cotton 
Belt  and  in  the  Gulf 
States  Johnson  grass 
and  Bermuda  grass  are 
grown  for  pasture  and 
sometimes  for  hay. 
Native  grasses  furnish 
the  most  important  hay 
crops  in  the  Plains 
Region.  In  the  states 


Diagram  showing  the  relation  of  digesti- 
bility and  yield,  of  timothy  hay  to  time  of 
cutting. 

A.  Relative  yields  of  dry  matter  at  dif- 
ferent stages. 

B.  Relative  digestibility  at  different  stages. 
(Missouri  Agr.  Exp.  Station.) 


of  the  Pacific  Coast, 
grain  hay,  such  as 
barley,  is  chiefly  used,  although  orchard  grass,  timothy, 
and  other  grasses  are  used  to  some  extent. 

The  yield  of  hay  from  meadows  tends  to  grow  less  from 
year  to  year,  unless  they  are  fertilized  —  a  somewhat  diffi- 
cult practice  seldom  followed.  On  account  of  decreasing 
yields  from  old  meadows,  it  is  desirable  to  keep  meadows 
in  a  system  of  rotation,  leaving  each  field  in  grass  only  two 
or  three  years.  For  example,  it  is  a  good  practice  to  sow  a 
mixture  of  clover  and  timothy  seed  in  the  field  the  same 
year.  During  the  first  season  clover  will  predominate,  but 
will  be  replaced  largely  by  timothy  th.e  second  season,  and 


MILLETS 


117 
After 


by  the  third  season  the  field  will  be  set  to  timothy, 
that  time  the  land  is  ready  for  a  crop  of  another  kind. 

Grasses  should  be  given  the  same  attention  as  small-seeded 
legumes    in    regard    to 
preparation  of  the  seed 
bed,  quality  of  seed,  and 
sowing. 

MILLETS 

Millets  are  annual 
plants  grown  as  the 
chief  hay  crop  in  the 
Central  Western  States. 
They  are  both  heat  and 
drought  resistant  and 
therefore  are  well 
adapted  to  this  region. 
Owing  to  their  short 
growing  period,  they  are 
sometimes  used  in  other 
sections  of  the  country  to 
furnish  hay  when  the 
regular  hay  crops  fail. 

Among  the  most  important  kinds  of  millets  are  common 
or  foxtail  millet,  German,  and  Hungarian  millet.  Broom 
corn  and  pearl  millets  are  grown  in  some  places. 

Millets  yield  well  when  grown  under  favorable  conditions. 
The  procedure  of  seeding  and  handling  the  crop  is  similar 
to  that  followed  for  other  grasses.  The  time  of  cutting, 
however,  is  especially  important.  Millet  should  be  cut  at 
that  stage  of  growth  when  the  blossoms  appear.  Late  cutting 


D  ? 


Varieties  of  Kafir. 

A.  White.        B.   Guinea. 
C.   Blackball.        D.  Red.     (U.S.  Dept. 
of  Agriculture.) 


n8 


PRINCIPLES   OF   FARM  PRACTICE 


should  be  avoided  because  the  woody  stems  and  hard  seeds 
injure  the  quality  of  the  hay. 


SORGHUMS 

Sorghums  are  grown  chiefly  in  the  Southern  and  Central 
Western  States.    They  are  used  for  grain,  forage,  and  hay. 
Kafir  corn,  milo  maize,  feterita,  and  durra  are  the  kinds 


Milo  maize  —  an  improved  variety.    (U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

most  commonly  grown.  Sudan  grass,  related  to  the  sorghums, 
has  lately  been  introduced  in  the  South  and  promises  to  be 
a  valuable  hay  plant  for  this  region.  It  is  sometimes  grown 
in  the  North,  as  in  Wisconsin. 

When  grown  for  a  hay  crop,  sorghums  must  be  sown  thickly 
to  prevent  too  coarse  a  growth.  The  cutting  should  be  done 
when  the  seeds  of  the  plants  are  in  the  milk  stage,  so  as  to 
reduce  the  proportion  of  woody  material  in  the  hay.  The 
method  of  curing  and  handling  is  similar  to  that  employed 
in  other  hay  crops. 


CHAPTER  XI 
MISCELLANEOUS   CROPS 

IN  the  preceding  chapters  all  of  the  staple  farm  crops 
except  cotton  have  been  discussed.  But  there  are  many  other 
farm  crops  of  agricultural  value  —  too  many  to  enumerate. 
They  are  included  in  the  following  great  classes : 

1.  Fiber  Crops  —  cotton,  flax,  and  hemp. 

2.  Tuber  and  root  crops  —  potatoes,  beets,  and  turnips. 

3.  Sugar  crops  —  sugar  beets  and  sugar  cane. 

4.  Stimulant  crops  — •  tobacco,  tea,  and  coffee. 

5.  Garden  crops  —  including  the  common  garden  vege- 

tables. 

6.  Orchard  crops  —  including  fruits  and  nuts. 

A  few  examples  from  these  classes  will  be  discussed  some- 
what in  detail.  These  examples  are  selected  because  of 
their  agricultural  importance  in  certain  sections  of  the 
country,  because  of  their  value  as  a  cash  crop  in  general 
farming,  or  because  of  their  value  for  home  use. 

Cotton,  potatoes,  tobacco,  and  factory  crops  (sugar  beets, 
tomatoes,  sweet  corn  and  peas)  will  be  discussed  in  this 
chapter.  Garden  and  orchard  crops  are  so  valuable  for 
home  use  on  the  farm  that  a  separate  chapter  will  be  devoted 
to  each. 

COTTON 

Cotton  is  adapted  to  the  climate  of  the  Southern  States. 
Nearly  half  of  the  cotton  crop  of  the  world  is  produced  here. 

119 


120  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

The  region,  known  as  the  Cotton  Belt,  may  be  seen  on  the 
distribution  map  of  cotton  production.  It  is  the  leading 
crop  of  these  states,  and  has  become  of  national  importance, 
because  of  the  value  of  the  production  itself  (it  amounted, 
in  1915,  to  over  $600,000,000)  and  because  of  the  great 
cotton-manufacturing  industry  which  it  supports.  Cotton- 
seed products  also  add  much  to  the  value  of  the  cotton  crop, 
amounting,  in  1915,  to  about  $180,000,000.  Cotton-seed 
oil  has  about  the  same  composition  as  olive  oil  and  has  similar 
uses;  cotton-seed  cake  (the  residue  after  the  oil  is  expressed), 
because  of  its  high  protein  content,  is  an  excellent  feed  for 
farm  animals;  even  the  hulls  of  the  cotton  seed  serve  a 
variety  of  useful  purposes. 

The  history  of  cotton  growing  in  the  South  is  similar  to 
that  of  crop  farming  in  the  North.  Cotton  growing  began  in 
the  Atlantic  Coast  States.  Later,  as  land  became  less  pro- 
ductive, it  extended  westward,  finally  reaching  Texas  and 
Oklahoma.  Until  recently,  continuous  cropping  has  been 
generally  employed  with  a  consequent  loss  of  soil  fertility, 
except  where  fertilizers  are  liberally  used.  The  tendency 
toward  low  yield  due  to  this  practice,  and  the  effect  of  the 
cotton  boll- weevil  and  other  insects,  have  made  it  necessary 
to  modify  the  older  methods.  The  new  practice  now  being 
introduced  makes  cotton  one  of  several  crops  in  a  rotation. 
It  includes  also  restoration  of  the  soil  fertility  by  the  use  of 
legumes  in  the  rotation  and  by  the  feeding  of  farm  animals. 
The  mild  climate  and  abundant  rainfall  are  favorable  for  the 
production  of  a  large  variety  of  forage  crops.  The  use  of 
these,  together  with  cotton-seed  products  or  some  other 
protein  feeding  material,  makes  stock  raising  profitable.  The 
kind  of  farming  that  includes  a  rotation  of  cotton  with  good 
feeding  crops  not  only  introduces  a  new  source  of  profit,  but, 


COTTON 


121 


at  the  same  time,  increases  the  yield  of  cotton  per  acre. 
The  introduction  of  these  new  methods  is  a  slow  process, 
partly  because  of*  lack  of  capital,  but  chiefly  because  it  is 
difficult  to  get  farmers  to  change  from  a  method  with  which 
they  are  familiar  to  an  untried  one. 

The  lack  of  capital  is  now  being  overcome  by  the  operation 
of  the  Rural  Loan  Act  which  makes  it  possible  for  a  farmer 
to  obtain  loans  for  equipment  and  live  stock.  To  overcome 
the  farmer's  resistance  to  a  change  of  methods,  an  educational 
program  is  being  introduced.  It  will  deal  with  adult  farmers 


EACH  DOT 

REPRESENTS. 

2,000  BALES 


Distribution  map  of  cotton.    (U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

through  county  agents  and  farm  demonstrations,  and  with 
boys  through  club  work  and  the  public  schools. 

Cotton  growing  has  lately  been  introduced  into  the  irri- 
gated regions  of  Arizona  and  Southern  California.  These 
regions  are  particularly  well  adapted  for  the  production  of  a 
kind  of  cotton  with  a  long  staple  or  fiber.  On  account  of 
its  strength,  this  kind  of  cotton  is  in  demand  for  the  manu- 
facture of  rubber  tires  for  automobiles. 

Preparation  of  the  seed  bed  and  planting.  —  The  usual 
time  for  plowing  is  February  or  March.  Where  cotton  is 
grown  successively  on  the  same  land  fall  plowing  has  several 
advantages;  among  them  are  a  better  control  of  the  boll- 


122  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

weevil  and  boll- worm,  and  the  possible  utilization  of  the 
cotton  stalks  as  green  manure.  Fall  plowing  followed  by 
the  sowing  of  winter  grain  and  crimson  clover  is  also 
practiced.  The  grain  and  clover  furnish  forage  for  stock  and, 
when  turned  under  in  the  spring,  improve  the  soil.  Preparing 
the  seed  bed  by  means  of  ridging  is  the  older  and  more 
common  method.  Two  furrows  are  thrown  together  forming 
a  ridge  for  each  row.  The  ridge  is  made  ready  for  planting 
by  breaking  with  a  double  moldboard  plow.  A  special 
machine  may  often  do  the  planting  and  breaking  at  the  same 
time.  Since  this  method  warms  and  drains  the  soil  it  is 
advantageous  for  wet  and  poorly  drained  soil. 

The  other  method  is  similar  to  that  used  in  preparing 
the  seed  bed  for  corn.  This  second  method  puts  the  seed 
bed  in  better  condition  and  saves  labor  by  making  use  of 
better  farm  implements. 

Where  continuous  cropping  is  practiced,  commercial  ferti- 
lizers must  be  used  either  at  the  time  of  seeding  or  before  the 
final  preparation  of  the  seed  bed.  Acid  phosphate  at  the 
rate  of  two  hundred  pounds  to  the  acre  is  commonly  used. 

Planting  is  done  in  drills,  in  rows  spaced  according  to  the 
richness  of  the  soil  —  from  two  and  one-half  to  five  feet 
apart.  The  seed  is  drilled  thickly,  but  the  plants  are  after- 
wards thinned  to  a  distance  of  one  or  two  feet  apart. 

Cultivation.  —  The  crop  is  cultivated  in  much  the  same  way 
as  any  other  cultivated  field  crop.  The  chief  object  is  to 
keep  down  weeds.  The  control  of  weeds  is  easier  with  the 
level  system  of  planting  than  with  the  ridge  method,  because 
the  harrow  or  weeder  can  be  used  when  the  plants  are  very 
small. 

Diseases  and  insects.  —  Cotton-wilt  and  cotton-root  rot 
are  the  most  common  diseases.  They  are  especially  de- 


COTTON 


123 


ro- 


A  cotton  boll  showing  injury  by 
larvae  of  the  boll-weevil.  (U.S.  Dept. 
of  Agriculture.) 


struct! ve  when  continuous  cropping  is  followed.     The 

tation  of  crops  is  the  most  effective  means  of  control. 
The    cotton    boil-weevil 

is  by  far  the  most  serious 

insect  pest.     Its  range  has 

gradually   spread   until  it 

now  includes  most  of  the 

Cotton  Belt.     This  insect 

may  produce  as  many  as 

five     generations    in    one 

season.     The  first  genera- 
tion attacks  the  bolls  when 

just  forming. 
The     adult     boll-weevil 

spends   the    winter  as   an 

adult,  hiding  in  parts  of  the  cotton  plant  or  in  other  plant 

refuse  left  in  the  field.  Fall  plowing,  the  cleaning  of  fence 
rows  and  adjacent  fields,  and  early  plant- 
ing of  quick-maturing  varieties  of  cotton 
seem  to  be  the  best  means  now  employed 
in  controlling  this  insect. 

The  boll- worm,  the  same  insect  known 
in  other  places  as  the  corn-ear  worm,  does 
considerable  damage  to  the  cotton  crop. 
It  is  controlled  in  the  same  way  as  the  boll- 
weevil. 

Harvesting.  —  Picking  is  done  by  hand. 
Beginning  late  'in  August,  picking  may 
extend  over  a  period  of  three  months.  After 
the  cotton  is  picked,  it  is  taken  to  a  gin 
which  removes  the  seed  from  the  lint.  The  lint  is  pressed  into 
large  bales  which  are  made  secure  by  straps  of  baling  iron. 


Boll-weevil  —  an 
adult  bisect.  (U.S. 
Dept.  of  Agricul- 
ture.) 


124  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

POTATOES 

Value  of  the  crop.  —  Potatoes  are  now  regarded  as  almost 
a  necessary  part  of  our  daily  bill  of  fare.  Besides,  consider- 
able quantities  are  used  for  stock  feeding,  starch  making, 
and  other  purposes. 

The  production  of  potatoes  for  the  entire  country,  in 
1917,  was  estimated  at  442,536,000  bushels,  valued  at 
$543,865,000.  For  the  five-year  period  of  1908-1912,  the 
average  production  per  acre  was  only  96.2  bushels.  A 
much  greater  acre  production  is  possible.  In  Utah,  in  1916, 
925  bushels  were  said  to  be  produced  by  a  boy,  on  one  acre. 
In  certain  sections  of  Colorado  800  bushels  per  acre  have 
been  produced.  Notwithstanding  the  possible  large  pro- 
duction of  the  potato  crop,  the  actual  needs  of  the  country 
have  at  times  required  the  importation  of  large  quantities 
from  foreign  countries.  A  good  illustration  of  the  effect  of 
low  production  may  be  cited.  There  was  a  shortage  in  1916- 
1917,  the  production  amounting  to  only  285,000,000  bushels. 
On  account  of  the  War  no  potatoes  could  be  imported  and 
the  retail  price  reached  as  much  as  eight  cents  per  pound  - 
a  price  beyond  the  means  of  many  people.  A  similar  situ- 
ation occurred  in  the  spring  of  1920,  the  retail  price  rising 
to  ten  cents  per  pound. 

From  this  review  of  the  agricultural  importance  of  potato 
production,  it  is  apparent  that  there  should  be  at  least  suf- 
ficient production  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  entire  country, 
making  importation  from  other  countries  unnecessary. 

Potato  growing  has  proved  a  profitable  field  for  special 
farming  in  regions  well  adapted  by  soil  and  climate  for  this 
crop.  Besides,  in  many  places  it  is  a  source  of  profit  as  a 
cash  crop  in  general  farming  and  is  also  valuable  for  home 


POTATOES  125 

use.  The  production  of  potatoes  in  its  relation  to  domestic 
consumption  is  low,  and  the  possibility  of  large  production 
with  good  financial  returns  is  shown  by  the  experience  of 
many  growers.  Therefore,  it  is  suggested  that  the  growing 
of  potatoes,  as  a  special  crop  as  well  as  an  incidental  crop, 
could  be  greatly  increased  with  profit  not  only  to  the  farmers 
concerned,  but  to  the  consumers  as  well. 

There  are  two  indirect  benefits  of  potato  growing  that  add 
to  its  value  as  a  farm  enterprise  —  the  effect  of  a  potato 
crop  on  the  soil  and  on  the  control  of  weeds. 

It  has  long  been  observed  that  various  farm  crops  when 
grown  on  land  previously  used  for  potatoes  show  a  greater 
yield  than  the  average  for  such  land.  It  is  also  necessary 
for  the  best  success  in  growing  potatoes  to  rotate  them  with 
other  crops,  preferably  in  a  long  rotation.  Some  crop  should 
therefore  follow  potatoes  each  year.  This  crop  will  ordinarily 
be  more  productive  than  under  the  usual  farm  conditions  of 
production. 

In  regard  to  the  control  of  weeds,  since  potatoes  must  be 
well  cultivated,  the  clearing  of  weeds  from  the  land  is  assured. 

In  this  connection  one  rather  serious  disadvantage  of 
potato  growing  should  be  mentioned  —  it  is  not  adapted  to 
unusual  seasonal  conditions,  such  as  too  much  or  too  little 
moisture.  Under  either  of  these  conditions  the  crop  is  likely 
to  be  a  failure. 

Another  point  should  be  taken  into  consideration;  during 
seasons  that  are  unusually  favorable  over  a  wide  territory, 
the  production  may  be  so  great  as  to  lower  prices  beyond  the 
margin  of  profit.  Doubtless  this  difficulty  will  in  time  be 
offset  by  the  use  of  potatoes  for  other  purposes  than  human 
food ;  for  example,  for  starch  making,  production  of  alcohol 
for  fuel,  feed  for  hogs,  etc.  If  potato  production  should 


126  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

become  great  enough  to  supply  material  for  these  uses  each 
year,  in  addition  to  providing  the  amount  needed  for  table 
use,  the  problem  of  disposing  of  the  surplus  of  unusually 
productive  years  would  be  solved. 

Climate.  —  Potatoes  require  for  their  best  growth  a  cool, 
even  temperature.  In  the  South,  they  may  be  grown  only 
in  early  spring  or  late  fall  in  order  to  escape  tipburn,  sun- 
scald  and  other  difficulties.  In  the  irrigated  regions,  as  in 
California,  Utah,  and  Colorado,  conditions  are  favorable, 
except  that  the  cool  nights  are  a  slight  disadvantage. 

Outside  of  these  states  the  climate  best  suited  for  potatoes 
is  found  in  Maine,  in  parts  of  other  New  England  States, 
also  in  New  York,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and 
North  Dakota.  As  a  special  crop  or  as  a  cash  crop  the  potato 
is  not  likely  to  prove  satisfactory  outside  of  these  regions. 
In  other  sections  early  spring  planting  for  summer  use  and 
summer  market  and  fall  planting  for  winter  use  should  produce 
enough  potatoes  to  supply  the  home  needs  and,  in  many 
instances,  a  surplus  for  sale. 

Further  requirements  for  potato  production.  —  Aside  from 
a  favorable  climate  there  are  four  requirements  for  the  best 
success  in  growing  potatoes;  selection  of  suitable  varieties, 
liberal  fertilizing,  thorough  cultivation,  and  the  control  of 
insects  and  diseases. 

In  selecting  potatoes  for  seed  several  things  must  be  con- 
sidered. Those  varieties  should  be  chosen  which  local  experi- 
ence has  shown  to  be  productive  and  at  the  same  time  to 
possess  marketable  qualities. 

In  the  same  field  it  is  possible  for  one  variety  to  produce 
abundantly  with  good  market  quality  and  another  to  produce 
heavy  tops,  with  tubers  of  inferior  yield  and  quality.  Among 
the  standard  varieties  are  the  Early  Ohio,  Early  Rose,  Bur- 


POTATOES  127 

bank,  Irish  Cobbler,  Carmen  No.  3,  Rural  New  Yorker,  Early 
Triumph,  and  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  Experience  only  can  deter- 
mine the  most  suitable  variety  for  a  given  locality.  The  four- 
hill-unit  method  of  improving  potatoes  described  in  Chapter 
XIV  is  well  worth  trying.  In  a  few  years  a  high-yielding  strain 
adapted  to  local  conditions  may  be  developed  in  this  way. 

Individual  tubers,  to  be  used  for  seed,  should  have  a  smooth 
skin,  shallow  eyes,  good  shape,  and  should  be  free  from  evi- 
dence of  disease,  such  as  scab.  Blocky,  rather  than  long, 
pieces  should  be  cut.  Each  piece  should  contain  one  or  two 
eyes.  The  size  of  the  piece  is  more  important  than  the  number 


•tUt 


Potato  tubers  —  the  kind  for  initial  selection  in  the  four-hill-unit  method 
of  improving  potatoes  by  selection. 

of  eyes.    A  one-ounce  piece  will  furnish  plenty  of  plant  food 
to  give  the  new  plant  a  good  start. 

A  sandy  loam  underlaid  with  clay  is  regarded  as  the  best 
soil  for  potatoes.  It  should  be  moderately  rich,  especially 
in  organic  matter,  for  the  double  purpose  of  providing  good 
soil  conditions  and  plant-food  material.  The  soil  should  be 
kept  in  good  condition  by  rotating  the  potatoes  with  legumes 
and  the  frequent  use  of  green  manure.  Other  fertilizers  are 
also  needed,  especially  potash,  and  some  phosphoric  acid. 
The  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  requirements  may  be  met 
by  using  a  heavy  application  of  manure  reinforced  by  acid 
phosphate. 


128  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

The  best  possible  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  should  be 
made  for  all  crops,  but  deep  plowing  is  especially  important 
in  potato  growing.  The  plowing  should  be  followed  by 
thorough  cultivation,  deep  at  first,  but  shallow  in  all  the 
later  cultivations,  because  the  potato  roots  grow  near  the 
surface  of  the  soil.  Ridging,  or  hilling,  is  not  necessary, 
except  just  enough  to  protect  the  tubers  from  sunburn. 

The  control  of  injurious  insects,  such  as  the  Colorado 
potato  beetle,  and  of  diseases,  such  as  late  blight,  requires 
considerable  attention.  With  all  the  conditions  of  climate, 
soil,  variety,  and  cultivation  favorable,  it  is  possible  to  have 
a  crop  failure  because  of  a  failure  to  control  either  insects  or 
diseases.  Fortunately,  control  of  these  two  factors  is  possible 
although  it  requires  labor  and  some  expense. 

The  general  procedure  is  as  follows :  to  destroy  the  spores 
of  such  diseases  as  potato  scab,  brown  rot,  black  leg,  stem 
rot,  etc.,  the  seed  tubers  should  be  treated,  before  planting, 
with  a  solution  of  formaldehyde  (made  by  adding  one  pint 
of  formaldehyde  to  thirty  gallons  of  water)  or  with  a  solution 
of  corrosive  sublimate  (four  ounces  of  corrosive  sublimate  to 
thirty  gallons  of  water) . 

During  the  growing  season  in  order  to  control  blight  and 
other  diseases,  the  plants  should  be  sprayed  from  time  to 
time  with  a  Bordeaux  mixture  (5-5-50  strength);  to  con- 
trol insects  a  mixture  containing  arsenic,  such  as  Paris  green 
or  arsenate  of  lead,  should  be  used. 

Details  for  the  preparation  of  these  mixtures,  and  the 
methods  and  time  for  their  application  will  be  found  in  the 
appendix. 

If  possible  only  those  tubers  free  from  diseases  should  be 
used  as  seed.  The  seed  should  be  planted  in  clean  land. 
A  long  rotation  should  be  practiced,  because  if  soil  is  once 


TOBACCO 


129 


infected  by  such  diseases  as  scab,  it  remains  infected  for 
several  years. 

Harvesting.  —  Potatoes  may  be  harvested  any  time  after 
the  tubers  have  matured;  but  early  crops  are  often  harvested 
before  maturity  in  order  to  meet  the  summer  market. 

Any  method  may  be  used  which  will  get  the  tubers  out 
of  the  ground  without  injury.  Methods  vary,  from  the  use 
of  a  potato-fork  or  hook  by  hand  on  small  areas,  to  the  use  of 
special  digging  machines,  such  as  potato  elevators,  on  large 
fields. 

TOBACCO 

Since  pioneer  times  tobacco  has  been  of  an  agricultural 
importance.  The  success  of  tobacco  growing  depends  more 
upon  the  soil  conditions  and  management  of  the  crop  than 
upon  climate.  In  a  number  of  states  natural  soil  conditions, 
here  and  there,  are  favorable  for  the  successful  production 
of  this  crop.  The  range  of  tobacco  may  be  seen  by  noting 
the  position  of  the  nine  tobacco-growing  states:  Kentucky, 
North  Carolina,  Virginia,  Ohio,  Connecticut,  Tennessee,  Penn-. 
sylvania,  South  Carolina,  and  Wisconsin.  Fourteen  other 
states  produce  it  in  considerable  quantities.  The  total  farm 
value  for  the  entire  country,  for  1915,  was  $96,041,000. 

The  soil  requirements  vary  with  the  kind  of  tobacco  grown. 
In  general,  the  mild,  light,  thin-leaf  types,  such  as  cigar- 
leaf  tobacco,  are  produced  on  light  sandy  loams;  while 
strong,  dark,  heavy  types  are  grown  on  sandy  clay  loam. 
Tobacco  is  said  to  be  "  hard  on  land,"  which  means  that 
the  crops  that  follow  do  not  yield  well.  This  statement  does 
not  apply  to  well-managed  farms  where  the  succeeding  crop 
is  better  than  the  average  on  the  rest  of  the  farm.  But  ro- 
tation must  be  practiced,  for  continuous  cropping  of  tobacco 


130  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM   PRACTICE 

will  not  succeed.    Fertilizers  are  often  used,  especially  those 
containing  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 

Tobacco  is  grown  as  a  cash  crop  and  in  some  localities  as 
a  main  crop.  Where  it  is  produced  along  with  other  crops 
in  general  farming,  there  is  a  tendency  to  make  tobacco  the 
main  crop  to  the  neglect  of  other  crops.  This  tendency  is  to 
be  deplored;  for  the  additional  profit  gained  from  the  tobacco 
would  doubtless  be  more  than  equalled  by  the  profit  secured 
from  a  well-balanced  system  of  farming. 

The  production  of  a  tobacco  crop  is  too  complicated  a 
procedure  to  discuss  in  detail  here.  Many  of  the  operations 
require  special  skill  and  experience. 

Factory  crops.  —  Included  in  these  are  sugar  beets,  to- 
matoes, sweet  corn,  peas,  and  cucumbers.  According  to  the 
general  practice,  these  crops  are  produced  in  cooperation  with 
factories.  Beet-sugar  factories  and  canning  factories  enter  in- 
to contracts  with  the  farmers  to  buy  certain  products.  The 
factories  give  directions  for  planting  and  caring  for  the  crops, 
sometimes  furnishing  expert  supervision  and  often  furnish- 
ing seed.  As  the  factory  crops  require  considerable  labor,  the 
average  farmer  can  devote  only  a  part  of  his  farm  to  their 
cultivation;  but  where  factories  are  near,  such  crops  are  often 
useful  as  cash  crops,  and  on  small  farms  they  may  become 
the  chief  source  of  income. 


CHAPTER  XII 
USE  AND   CARE   OF  THE  FARM  GARDEN 

Place  of  the  vegetable  garden  on  the  farm.  —  The  pro- 
duction of  vegetables  for  home  use  is  often  neglected  by  the 
farmer.  It  is  hard  to  believe  that  one  whose  business  is 
producing  crops  should  depend  upon  the  village  market 
instead  of  supplying  his  table  from  his  own  garden.  Never- 
theless such  a  practice  is  not  uncommon.  The  farmer  seems 
to  dislike  the  care  of  a  garden.  It  seems  trivial  work  to  him, 
and  he  believes  that  it  is  cheaper  and  less  trouble  to  buy 
table  vegetables  than  to  produce  them. 

In  some  instances  this  attitude  may  be  justified,  as  in 
regions  where  there  is  little  summer  rainfall.  But  on  most 
farms  a  vegetable  garden  will  give  ample  returns  for  all  the 
labor  spent  upon  it.  It  should  supply  a  variety  of  fresh 
vegetables  in  season  and  produce  surplus  enough  to  be  pre- 
served for  winter  use. 

Requirements  for  a  farm  garden.  —  Three  factors  are 
essential  to  the  success  of  a  farm  garden:  First,  the  plot 
should  be  small  enough  to  prevent  its  proper  care  becoming 
a  burden;  second,  the  soil  should  be  reinforced  by  a  heavy 
application  of  well-rotted  manure  and  then  put  into  the  best 
possible  condition;  third,  a  careful  plan  should  be  made  well 
in  advance,  so  as  to  provide  for  a  variety  and  succession  of 
vegetables  sufficient  for  all  home  needs. 

If  the  soil  is  carefully  fertilized,  a  small  plot,  well-planned, 
will  meet  all  the  requirements  of  the  average  farm  home. 


132  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

If  it  is  plowed  in  the  fall  and  a  liberal  amount  of  well-rotted 
manure  is  then  applied,  the  work  necessary  to  put  the  soil  in 
good  condition  in  the  spring  will  be  much  reduced.  Besides, 
the  organic  matter  added  will  tend  to  retain  moisture  and 
make  the  soil  easy  to  work  during  the  growing  season. 

After  this  initial  preparation  of  a  garden  plot  has  been 
made,  a  rotation  may  be  established  which  will  meet  the  soil 
requirements  of  the  various  vegetables,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
reduce  the  amount  of  manure  to  be  applied  in  any  one  year. 
Such  a  plan  is  sometimes  known  as  the  "  three-field  system." 
It  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  vegetables  may  be  divided  into 
three  groups,  according  to  the  richness  of  the  soil  needed  for 
their  best  development.  The  first  group  requires  heavily- 
fertilized  soil.  This  group  includes  plants  used  for  their 
tops  or  fruits,  such  as  cabbage,  lettuce,  tomatoes,  and  corn. 
The  second  group  requires  soil  of  moderate  fertility  and 
includes  the  root  crops,  such  as  potatoes,  turnips,  radishes, 
carrots,  etc.  The  third  group  requires  no  fertilizer  unless 
the  soil  is  very  poor.  Peas  and  beans  belong  to  the  third 
group.  Being  legumes,  they  can  supply  their  own  nitrogen. 

The  three-field  system  is  carried  out  as  follows:  The 
garden  area  is  divided  into  three  parts;  the  first  is  richly 
fertilized  with  manure  balanced  with  acid  phosphate;  the 
second  is  sparingly  fertilized  with  finely  divided,  well-rotted 
manure;  the  third  is  left  unfertilized.  On  the  first  division 
are  grown  plants  of  the  first  group;  on  the  second,  plants  of 
the  second  group;  on  the  third,  plants  of  the  third  group. 
In  the  second  year,  the  division  which,  during  the  first  year, 
bore  plants  of  the  first  group,  is  planted  to  plants  of  the  second 
group,  and  in  the  third  year  to  plants  of  the  third  group.  In 
the  fourth  year,  as  in  the  first  year,  it  is  richly  fertilized  and 
planted  to  plants  of  the  first  group.  The  division  which, 


THE  FARM  GARDEN  133 

during  the  first  year,  bore  plants  of  the  second  group  is  planted 
the  second  year  to  plants  of  the  third  group,  and  so  on.  Thus 
by  rotating  crops,  the  three  divisions  may  indefinitely  be 
kept  in  a  condition  best  adapted  to  each  of  these  three  groups 
of  plants. 

Another  method  that  has  been  used  with  good  results  is 
to  rotate  garden  crops  with  some  legume,  such  as  clover. 
This  plan  has  two  advantages.  It  gives  the  land  a  rest  every 
third  year  and  it  increases  the  supply  of  humus  and  nitrogen 
in  the  soil. 

The  method  is  as  follows :  The  garden  is  divided  into  three 
equal  parts;  for  the  first  year  clover  is  sown  on  part  i  and 
vegetables  on  2  and  3;  for  the  second  year,  clover  is  sown 
on  part  2,  vegetables  on  i  and  3;  the  third  year,  clover  is 
sown  on  part  3,  vegetables  on  i  and  2.  This  completes  the 
rotation  which  is  then  repeated. 

It  will  be  a  simple  matter  to  get  the  garden  started  if  a 
detailed  plan  is  made  and  seed  procured  during  the  winter 
when  there  is  plenty  of  time  not  needed  for  other  farm  work. 
During  part  of  the  winter  months  it  might  be  well  to  have 
the  class  in  agriculture  make  a  planting  plan  for  the  garden, 
each  pupil  constructing  a  plan  for  his  own  home  garden. 

There  are  two  steps  in  making  such  a  plan.  First,  the  plot 
should  be  drawn  to  scale  from  actual  measurements  of  the 
area  of  ground  to  be  used,  each  foot  represented  by  a  fraction 
of  an  inch  on  the  drawing.  For  example,  a  plot  80  by  160 
feet,  represented  on  a  sheet  of  paper  with  a  scale  of  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  to  a  foot,  would  make  a  rectangle  ten  by 
twenty  inches;  a  distance  of  three  feet  between  rows 
would  be  indicated  by  a  space  three  times  J,  or  f  of  an 
inch. 

After  the  exact  area  of  the  garden  has  been  drawn  to 


134  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

scale,  the  accurate  positions  of  all  the  vegetables  to  be 
planted  may  be  fixed  and  the  time  of  planting  of  each  may 
be  indicated. 

If  the  plan  is  for  the  three-field  system,  the  proper  placing 
of  the  vegetables  belonging  to  each  group  should  be  indicated. 
A  planting  table  giving  the  time  of  planting  and  other  details 
of  our  common  vegetables  should  be  consulted. 

It  is  especially  important  to  arrange  the  planting  plan  to 
secure  variety  and  succession.  A  quantity  sufficient  to  supply 
all  needs  may  thus  be  provided  without  the  over  supply  that 
frequently  occurs  in  a  poorly  planned  farm  garden. 

Care  and  protection.  —  By  planting  the  vegetables  in  rows 
far  enough  apart  to  permit  the  use  of  a  field  cultivator,  hand 
labor  may  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  hoe  and  rake  will 
be  needed  only  for  those  parts  not  reached  by  the  cultivator. 
Experience  has  shown  that  thorough  cultivation  increases 
both  the  yield  and  the  quality  of  garden  vegetables. 

Plant  diseases  and  insects  are  apt  to  do  much  harm  unless 
measures  are  taken  for  their  control.  The  number  of  diseases 
and  insects  that  attack  garden  plants  is  too  large  to  be  con- 
sidered here.  The  details  of  a  means  of  control  will  be  found 
in  the  references  suggested  in  another  paragraph. 

Sources  of  information.  —  Space  does  not  permit  further 
directions  for  planting  or  managing  a  garden  but  they  may 
be  found  in  references  given  in  the  appendix.  The  conditions 
brought  on  by  the  Great  War,  in  the  spring  of  1917,  aroused 
an  interest  in  gardening  never  before  known  in  this  country. 
In  response  to  this  interest  easily  understood  and  reliable 
information  on  gardening  has  been  published  by  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  State 
Agricultural  Experiment  Stations,  Agricultural  Colleges,  and 
other  state  institutions  in  every  state.  These  publications 


THE   FARM   GARDEN  135 

are  available  for  any  school  and  furnish  detailed  information 
applying  to  any  particular  locality. 

A  job  for  boys  and  girls.  —  During  the  garden  season  of 
1918,  about  1,500,000  boys  and  girls  made  gardens,  and  the 
value  of  the  products  from  these  gardens  was  estimated  at 
$15,000,000.  Before  the  War  thousands  of  boys  and  girls 
in  towns  and  cities  made  successful  vegetable  gardens  which 
not  only  supplied  the  home,  but  produced  a  surplus  sufficient, 
when  sold,  to  bring  considerable  return  to  the  producer. 
Similar  success  attended  the  efforts  of  many  boys  and  girls 
living  on  farms,  enough  to  indicate  that  the  problem  of  the 
farm  garden  might  easily  be  solved  if  undertaken  by  the 
boys  and  girls.  In  most  cases  a  business  arrangement  could 
be  made,  whereby  the  gardener  would  receive  a  sum  for  the 
vegetables  supplied  to  the  farm  home,  equivalent  to  their 
cost  if  bought  at  the  village  market. 

Preserving  garden  products.  —  Preserving  food  produced 
in  the  garden  by  canning  and  drying  saves  much  that  would 
otherwise  be  wasted  and,  at  the  same  time,  provides  a  winter 
supply  for  the  home.  The  great  value  of  this  work  was 
demonstrated  during  the  War.  It  is  estimated  that,  in  1918, 
1,450,000,000  quart  jars  of  produce  were  preserved.  Con- 
servation of  food  should  go  on  also  in  times  of  peace.  Com- 
plete directions  for  canning  all  kinds  of  vegetables  and  fruits 
will  be  found  in  references  in  the  appendix. 

Hot  beds  and  cold  frames.  —  In  the  Northern  States  the 
garden  season  may  be  much  extended  by  the  use  of  hot  beds 
and  cold  frames  for  the  production  of  early  vegetables:  The 
average  farmer  may  not  feel  that  he  can  afford  the  time 
necessary  for  starting  vegetables  in  this  way.  But  if,  as  has 
been  suggested,  the  boy  or  the  girl  on  the  farm  undertakes 
to  supply  the  home  with  vegetables,  the  use  of  the  hot  bed 


i36 


PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM   PRACTICE 


AIR     SPACE 


MANURE 


and  cold  frame  will  be  profitable  as  well  as  interesting.  Early 
vegetables  command  a  high  market  price,  and  those  not 
needed  at  home  may  readily  be  sold. 

Construction  of  hot  bed  and  cold  frames.  —  A  hot  bed 
consists  of  a  pit,  a  frame,  and  a  sash  or  glass  cover.  The 
dimensions  of  the  pit  and  frame  will  depend  upon  the  size 
of  the  sash  to  be  used.  The  pit  should  be  two  feet  deep, 
and  the  frame  on  the  north  side  twelve  inches  from  the  ground 

and  on  the  south  side,  six 
inches.  The  pit  should 
\  be  filled  with  manure 
which  has  begun  to  decom- 
pose. On  top  of  the  man- 
ure a  six-inch  layer  of  good 
garden  soil  should  be 
placed.  The  object  of  the 
manure  is  to  produce  heat 
as  it  ferments  or  decom- 
poses. After  the  hot  bed 
has  been  prepared  in  this 
way  it  is  ready  for  planting.  When  planting  is  done,  the 
bed  should  be  kept  moist  and  covered  with  glass.  On  warm 
days,  after  the  plants  are  up,  the  sash  should  be  raised  a  few 
inches  on  one  side,  but  always  let  down  before  night.  In 
cold  weather  the  plants  should  be  protected  further  by  cover- 
ing the  sash  with  a  thick  layer  of  straw  or  other  covering  so 
as  to  retain  the  heat. 

A  cold  frame  is  just  like  the  hot  bed  except  for  the  pit  and 
manure.  It  is  a  protection  for  the  plants  that  are  later  to  be 
removed  to  the  garden.  Plants  cannot  with  safety  be  set 
from  the  hot  bed  directly  into  the  garden.  The  change  from 
warm  to  cool  conditions  is  too  sudden.  By  being  transplanted 


Diagram  of  section  of  hot  bed  showing 
method  of  construction. 


THE   FARM   GARDEN  137 

from  the  hot  bed  to  the  cold  frame,  the  plants  are  gradually 
hardened  and  can.  then  be  transferred  with  perfect  safety  to 
the  garden. 

Truck  or  market  gardening.  —  The  principles  of  gardening 
that  have  been  presented  are  applied  on  a  large  scale  to  truck 
or  market  gardening,  which  is  a  special  kind  of  farming 
devoted  to  the  production  of  vegetables.  This  kind  of  garden- 
ing is  further  specialized  by  limiting  the  production  to  a  few 
kinds  of  vegetables,  generally  so  selected  as  to  cover  the 
entire  growing  season.  Truck  farming  or  market  gardening 
is  most  profitable  near  cities  where  markets  are  easily  ac- 
cessible. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

FRUIT  RAISING   ON   THE  FARM 

Fruit  as  a  special  crop.  —  Fruit  farming  has  become  a 
highly  specialized  industry  requiring  expert  management  in 
the  care  of  orchards  and  marketing  of  the  products.  In 
most  cases  where  there  are  regions  particularly  well  adapted 
to  the  production  of  some  kind  of  fruit,  we  find  many  farmers 
giving  their  entire  attention  to  fruit  raising,  as  the  production 
of  oranges  and  other  citrus  fruits  in  California  and  Florida, 
apples  in  Washington,  Oregon,  Michigan,  New  York  and  in 
portions  of  several  other  states. 

The  importance  of  one  kind  of  special  farming  is  shown 
in  the  value  of  the  product  —  apples  —  for  a  single  year.  In 
1915,  the  apple  crop  amounted  to  more  than  $60,000,000. 
Facilities  for  keeping  fruit  in  cold  storage  until  ready  for  the 
market,  its  high  price  on  the  market  and  a  growing  demand 
seem  to  indicate  a  promising  field  for  special  fruit  farming. 
But  climate,  soil,  relation  to  markets,  and  other  factors  are 
so  important  that  much  care  must  be  taken  in  selecting  a 
site  for  an  orchard  which  will  be  profitable.  Fruit  regions 
are  so  extensively  exploited  by  advertising,  that  a  prospective 
investor  should  make  a  careful  personal  investigation  and 
consult  with  the  fruit  experts  connected  with  the  State 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  rather  than  buy  upon  the 
advice  of  a  land  promoter. 

Place  of  fruit  raising  on  the  farm.  —  Beside  the  regions 
mentioned  in  the  brief  reference  to  fruit  farming,  there  are  a 

138 


FRUIT  RAISING  ON   THE   FARM  139 

great  many  farms  where  enough  fruit  may  be  produced  to 
supply  all  the  home  needs  and  often  furnish  a  considerable 
surplus  for  sale.  Like  the  farm  garden,  the  farm  orchard 
has  been  much  neglected.  There  was  a  time  when  most 
farms  in  the  Northern  States  included  apple  orchards,  but 
these  have  been  neglected  until  good  farm  orchards  are  now 
rare.  The  neglect  of  orchards  may  be  accounted  for  in  part 
by  the  difficulty  of  keeping  fruit  trees  free  from  disease  and 
injuries  occasioned  by  insects.  Such  injuries  are  much  more 
common  now  than  formerly.  But  in  spite  of  these  difficulties, 
the  advantage  of  having  fresh  fruit  for  home  use  is,  alone, 
sufficient  to  encourage  the  maintenance  of  a  good  variety  of 
fruit  on  every  farm  where  climatic  conditions  are  favorable. 
Several  things  are  necessary  to  the  successful  establishment 
and  maintenance  of  fruit  production  on  the  farm. 

Variety  and  succession.  —  Since  the  chief  object  of  the 
farm  orchard  is  to  supply  the  farm  home,  attention  must 
be  given  to  securing  a  variety  in  kinds  of  fruit,  as  well  as  a 
succession  of  ripening  periods  distributed  through  several 
months.  In  making  such  a  selection,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
consult  bulletins  and  circulars  from  State  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Stations,  and  catalogs  of  reliable  dealers. 

Succession  may  be  secured  first,  by  planting  several  kinds 
of  fruit  such  as  apples,  pears,  peaches,  cherries,  and  small 
fruit;  second,  by  planting  several  varieties  of  each  kind, 
such  as  fall  and  winter  apples,  early  and  late  peaches.  But 
in  making  such  a  selection,  adaptability  to  the  climate  of 
the  locality  in  which  they  are  to  be  grown  must  be  considered. 
Hardiness  sufficient  to  withstand  the  cold  of  winter  is  an 
important  quality. 

After  the  various  kinds  of  fruit  stock  have  been  decided 
upon,  they  should  be  purchased  from  a  reliable  nursery  which 


140 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


will  guarantee  them  to  be  as  represented.  It  is  of  first 
importance  to  know  that  the  nursery  company  is  absolutely 
reliable,  one  that  cannot  afford  to  injure  its  reputation  by 
selling  stock  that  will  not  develop  as  represented. 

Establishing  an  orchard.  —  The  selection  of  a  suitable 
location  for  an  orchard  is  of  great  importance  because  of  its 
permanent  character.  In  order  to  give  the  orchard  the  right 
kind  of  a  start,  it  is  also  important  to  know  when  to  plant 
the  trees  and  how  each  kind  should  receive  its  first  pruning. 

Selection  of  site.  - 
Convenience,  soil,  and 
slope  should  be  taken 
into  consideration 
when  selecting  a  site. 
On  most  farms  con- 
venience will  be  an 

Diagram  showing  how  to  prune  the  roots  of      important    matter,    for 
a  fruit  tree  before  transplanting. 

A.  As  the  plant  comes  from  the  nursery. 

B.  After  being  pruned. 


fruit  should  be  near  at 
hand  SO  as  to  encourage 


should  be  rich,  well  prepared,  and  well  drained.  Where  pos- 
sible a  north  slope  is  preferable  to  a  south  slope  or  level 
ground. 

Time  to  plant.  —  Fruit  trees,  vines  and  bushes  should  be 
set  out  while  in  a  dormant  condition,  that  is,  after  the  leaves 
are  off  in  the  fall  and  before  the  buds  swell  in  the  spring. 
This  may  either  be  in  the  fall  or  in  the  early  spring.  Where 
winters  are  severe,  spring  planting  will  generally  succeed  best. 

Getting  the  trees  ready  to  plant.  —  Trees  come  from  the 
nursery  carefully  packed.  When  unpacked,  the  roots  must 
not  be  allowed  to  dry  by  exposure  to  wind  or  sun.  As  soon 
as  received  they  should  be  set  out,  or  if  that  is  not  possible, 


FRUIT  RAISING  ON  THE  FARM 


141 


they  should  be  "  heeled  in."  Heeling  in  is  done  by  placing 
the  roots  of  the  trees  in  a  trench  with  one  sloping  side,  allow- 
ing the  trunks  to  rest  against  the  earth  of  the  slope.  As 
soon  as  the  trees  are  removed  from  the  trench  or  from  the 
original  package,  the  roots  of  each  tree  should  be  dipped  in 
water  to  which  sufficient  clay  has  been  added  to  make  a 
mush.  The  moist  clay  keeps  the  roots  frorrf  becoming  dry. 
All  injured  roots  should  be  cut  off. 

Setting  the  trees.  —  First  of  all,  the  soil  of  the  area  to  be 
planted  should  be  put  in  the  best  possible  condition,  which 


Diagram  showing  kind  of  hole  to  dig  for  transplanting  a  tree. 

A .  Hole  of  right  size  and  shape,  allowing  freedom  for  good  root  distribution. 

B.  Hole  too  narrow,  roots  bent. 

C.  Hole  carelessly  made,  roots  crowded.    (Ohio  State  Agr.  College.) 

includes  a  liberal  application  of  well-rotted  manure.  The 
importance  of  this  careful  preparation  for  setting  trees  is 
greater  than  is  commonly  supposed.  The  careless  method 
of  setting  a  tree  in  a  hole  in  the  ground  and  then  letting  it 
take  care  of  itself  generally  leads  to  disappointment.  Fruit 
trees  need,  for  their  best  development,  the  same  care  in  the 
preparation  of  the  soil  that  other  plants  need. 

Next,  the  position  of  each  tree  should  be  indicated  by  a 
small  stake.  In  laying  out  or  planning  the  planting,  two 
things  must  be  kept  in  mind:  first,  straight  rows  facilitate 
cultivation;  second,  there  should  be  adequate  distance  be- 
tween the  trees.  Usually  the  latter  point  is  not  sufficiently 


142 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


considered.  A  safe  rule  is  to  allow  enough  space  for  each 
tree  to  develop,  so  that  when  mature  it  will  neither  shade 
another  tree  nor  be  shaded  by  it. 

After  the  position  of  each  tree  has  been  settled,  a  hole 
should  be  dug,  wider  than  the  diameter  of  the  root  system 
of  the  tree  and  somewhat  deeper.  The  soil  at  the  bottom 


Diagrams  showing  where  a  fruit  tree  should  be  pruned. 

A.  A  two-year  tree  as  it  comes  from  the  nursery. 

B.  After     pruning.         C.  A     year     later.         D.  After 
pruning. 

of  the  hole  should  be  loose  and  finely  divided.  The  tree 
should  be  placed  in  the  hole  with  its  roots  carefully 
straightened.  The  dirt  should  be  well  packed  around  the 
roots  so  as  to  bring  the  soil  into  close  contact  with  them. 
If  the  soil  is  dry,  water  should  be  added.  As  the  other  trees 
are  put  out  in  the  same  way  attention  should  be  given  to 
keeping  the  rows  straight. 


FRUIT  RAISING  ON  THE  FARM  143 

Pruning.  —  Sometime  before  the  opening  of  the  spring 
buds,  each  tree  sheuld  be  pruned.  The  object  of  pruning 
is  to  preserve  a  balance  between  the  roots  and  branches. 
Since  many  of  the  roots  have  been  destroyed  in  transplanting, 
there  will  not  be  enough  to  supply  the  branches  with  water 
and  food  material  if  the  branches  are  left  as  they  were  in 
the  nursery.  Trees  properly  pruned  have  a  much  better 
growth  than  those  left  unpruned. 

Trees  should  be  cared  for.  —  Giving  the  fruit  trees  a  good 
start,  as  important  as  it  is,  will  not  insure  the  successful 
production  of  fruit.  They  must  also  have  good  care;  care 
of  the  soil,  care  in  pruning,  and  care  in  protection  from  injuries 
made  by  parasitic  fungi  and  insects. 

Soil.  —  The  soil  should  receive  the  same  attention  as  that 
given  to  any  other  well-cultivated  crop.  A  good  mulch  should 
be  maintained  to  conserve  moisture.  From  time  to  time, 
manure  should  be  worked  into  the  soil  in  order  to  increase 
its  water-holding  capacity  and  to  add  to  the  store  of  plant 
food.  The  same  results  are  often  obtained  by  sowing  a 
legume,  such  as  clover,  and  plowing  it  under.  Orchardists 
have  lately  found  that  sweet  clover  is  valuable  for  this 
purpose  because  of  its  extreme  hardiness  and  rank  growth. 

Pruning.  —  It  is  difficult  to  do  more  in  a  few  words  than 
to  present  merely  the  principles  of  pruning.  The  details,  as 
applied  to  different  kinds  of  fruit  trees,  must  be  found  in 
special  references.  The  object  in  pruning  a  young  tree  is  to 
control  its  shape  so  that  sunshine  may  reach  each  part.  It 
is  desirable  that  a  fruit  tree  should  have  a  low,  spreading 
shape  so  that  the  fruit  may  easily  be  gathered.  In  securing 
this  shape,  the  branches  may  be  so  developed  as  to  let  sun- 
shine in  to  all  leaf-bearing  parts  of  the  tree.  It  is  also  possible, 
when  the  tree  begins  to  bear  fruit,  to  control  the  setting  of 


144 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


the  fruit  so  that  it  will  be  borne  on  the  stronger  branches 
near  the  trunk,  thus  reducing  the  possibility  of  branches 
being  broken  by  the  weight  of  the  fruit. 

Insects  and  diseases.  —  Each  kind  of  tree  has  its  own 
difficulties  with  insects  and  diseases.  For  example,  the  fruit 
of  the  apple  tree  is  injured  by  a  disease  known  as  apple  rot 
and  by  an  insect  called  the  codling  moth.  Apple  production 
is  interfered  with  by  many  other  diseases  and  insects,  but 
these  are  mentioned  as  important  examples.  Control  of 
insects  and  diseases  is  absolutely  necessary  for  successful 
fruit -raising.  In  general,  spores  which  may  develop  into 
fungi  and  cause  disease  are  destroyed  by  means  of  chemical 
mixtures  known  as  fungicides,  and  insects  are  killed  by  means 

of  poisons.  Both  are  applied  in 
the  form  of  a  solution  by  means 
of  sprays.  Usually  the  application 
of  a  fungicide  for  control  of  plant 
diseases  is  made  in  the  spring 
before  the  buds  open,  but  in  some 
cases  it  may  be  made  when  the 
tree  is  in  full  leaf.  In  either  case 
the  spray  is  intended  to  kill  the 
Diagrams  showing  successive  spores  of  the  disease-producing 

stages  in  making  a  graft.  (Cal-  fungus.  For  example,  if  peach 
ifornia  Agr.  Exp.  Station.)  trees  are  sprayed  before  the  buds 

swell,  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture,  the  spores  of  the  fungus 
which  causes  leaf  curl  will  be  destroyed,  and  this  injury 
controlled.  The  control  of  insects  by  the  application  of 
poisons  depends  upon  the  habits  of  the  insects.  For  example, 
it  is  the  habit  of  the  plum  curculio  to  make  a  hole  in  the 
plum  and  deposit  eggs.  She  may  be  injured  before  egg  laying 
is  accomplished  if  a  poison,  such  as  arsenate  of  lead,  is 


FRUIT  RAISING  ON  THE  FARM 


145 


applied  after  the  bloom  has  fallen  when  the  young  plums  are 
just  beginning  to  form. 

Plant   diseases  and  insects   not   only  interfere   with   fruit 
production,   but,    to   a     ^ 


f 


<J 


I 


certain  extent,  with  every 
other  kind  of  plant  produc- 
tion. Some  of  the  main 
general  facts  relating  to 
each  are  presented  in 
Chapters  XV  and  XVII. 
Bulletins  and  circulars  are 
furnished  by  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture 
and  by  State  Agricultural 
Experiment  Stations, 
which  give  detailed  instruc- 
tions for  the  control  of 
plant  diseases  and  insects 
that  are  associated  with 
each  kind  of  fruit.  These 
should  be  studied  in  connec- 
tion with  this  chapter.  In 
the  appendix  will  be  found 
a  spraying  program  for 
orchards  and  fruit  gardens. 
Improving  the  orchard 
by  grafting  and  budding. 
-After  fruit  trees  have  become  established,  it  may  be 
desirable  to  extend  the  varieties.  This  may  be  done  without 
further  planting,  by  grafting  and  budding  other  varieties  on 
to  trees  already  developed.  In  this  way  one  tree  may  be 
made  to  produce  several  kinds  of  fruit. 


Diagrams   showing   the   process   of 
budding 

A.  Twig  from  which  buds  are  cut. 

B.  Cutting  bud  from  twig. 

C.  Making  T-shaped  cut  for  inser- 
tion of  bud. 

D.  Bark  raised  for  insertion  of  bud. 

E.  Bud  inserted. 

F.  Bud  tied  on. 

G.  Bud  developing  into  twig. 
(Missouri  Agr.  Exp.  Station.) 


146  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

The  principles  of  grafting  and  budding  are  simple.  They 
consist  essentially  in  bringing  the  freshly-cut  surface  of  the 
branch  of  the  tree  (called  stock)  on  which  the  graft  or  bud 
is  to  be  set  into  contact  with  the  cut  surface  of  the  twig  to 
be  grafted  (called  cion),  or  into  contact  with  the  bud  to  be 
set.  The  cut  surfaces  must  be  brought  together  in  such  a 
way  as  to  make  a  portion  of  the  cambium,  or  growing  layer 
of  the  stock,  touch  the  cambium  of  the  cion  or  the  bud.  In 
the  case  of  grafts,  they  are  held  in  place  by  grafting  wax 
pressed  around  the  union;  in  the  case  of  buds,  by  means  of 
a  coarse  string  or  bit  of  raffia. 

Some  trees,  such  as  the  peach,  are  easily  budded,  while 
others,  such  as  the  apple,  are  grafted  more  successfully. 
Grafting  and  budding  take  some  time  and  attention,  but  the 
results  are  interesting  and  often  worth  while.  Boys  and 
girls  can  do  the  work  quite  as  successfully  as  adults. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
PLANT  IMPROVEMENT 

Meaning  of  plant  improvement.  —  Plant  improvement  refers 
to  the  practice  of  securing  high-yielding  plants  and  keeping 
them  at  a  high  level  of  production.  Agricultural  plants  vary 
greatly  in  their  capacity  for  production.  Attention  has  been 
called  to  the  importance  of  selecting  plants  which  are  best 
adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate  of  the  particular  region  where 
they  are  to  be  grown.  But  this  is  not  the  only  selection 
necessary  to  secure  a  high  yield.  Among  plants  of  the  same 
kind  there  are  differences  that  must  be  considered  in  order 
that  maximum  production  may  be  reached.  For  example, 
the  yield  of  a  single  variety  of  corn,  such  as  Reid's  yellow 
dent,  will  vary  in  the  same  locality,  although  the  fertility  of 
the  soil,  preparation  of  the  seed  bed,  cultivation,  and  other 
factors  influencing  the  growth  of  the  plant  are  similar.  Other 
things  being  equal,  the  greatest  yield  will  occur  when  the 
most  careful  attention  is  paid  to  the  selection  of  seed.  It 
requires  but  little  more  labor  and  expense  to  produce  a  crop 
from  high-yielding  plants  than  is  necessary  to  produce  one 
from  low-yielding  plants. 

How  high-yielding  and  otherwise  desirable  plants  are 
secured.  —  Considering  only  those  qualities  possessed  by 
plants  themselves,  and  not  those  resulting  from  fertility  of 
the  soil  or  from  other  agencies  influencing  plant  growth, 
highly  productive  plants,  or  plants  having  exceptional  quali- 
ties, are  secured  in  four  ways:  by  introducing  plants  from 

147 


148  PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM  PRACTICE 

other  countries;  by  propagating  new  plants  as  they  are 
noticed  among  other  plants  of  the  farm;  by  crossing  plants, 
thereby  combining  the  good  qualities  of  two  or  more  plants 
into  one;  by  selection.  It  will  be  of  interest  to  notice  each 
of  these  separately. 

Introduction  of  foreign  plants.  —  Most  of  our  agricultural 
plants  have  been  brought  to  the  United  States  from  other 
lands.  Our  country  was  settled  by  people  from  different 
parts  of  the  world.  When  they  came  here,  they  brought 
with  them  seeds  and  plants  from  their  old  homes.  Some  of 
the  plants  were  well  adapted  to  their  new  environment  and 
flourished  even  better  than  in  the  old.  The  successful  plants 
became  well  established,  while  the  production  of  others  not 
so  well  suited  has  been  abandoned.  In  some  such  way  as 
this,  many  of  our  most  important  farm  plants  were  developed 
and  extended  to  different  parts  of  the  country  adapted  to 
their  growth.  At  the  same  time,  largely  through  unconscious 
selection,  they  were  improved  and  became  in  many  instances 
better  than  the  original  parent  plants. 

Many  farmers,  who  were  able,  explored  other  lands  and 
brought  back  to  this  country  plants  that  held  promise  of 
being  useful  here.  For  example,  the  Mediterranean  wheat 
was  introduced,  in  1819,  from  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea. 

As  early  as  1839  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture became  interested  in  making  similar  explorations. 
Between  1839  and  1880,  sorghum,  Kafir  corn,  varieties  of 
sugar  cane,  and  other  plants  were  introduced.  The  results 
of  these  early  explorations  seemed  so  valuable  that,  in  1898, 
substantial  appropriations  began  to  be  made  to  carry  on  this 
work.  In  1901,  when  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  was 
formed,  Plant  Introduction  was  included  as  a  division  of 


PLANT  IMPROVEMENT  149 

this  Bureau.  The  purpose  of  this  division  was  to  explore 
the  world  systematically  and  to  bring  back  to  this  country 
plants  that  might  be  valuable  to  our  agricultural  production. 

As  now  organized,  this  division  consists  of  two  branches: 
that  of  exploration,  which  places  several  men  in  the  field  to- 
travel  over  the  world  in  search  of  useful  plants;  and  that  of 
propagation,  which  tries  out  the  plants  sent  here  by  the 
explorers  to  determine  their  agricultural  value.  If  they 
prove  valuable  when  fully  tested,  they  are  distributed  to 
farmers  for  actual  introduction. 

Many  plants,  some  more  productive  than  similar  kinds 
already  grown  here,  and  others,  new  kinds  of  great  agri- 
cultural value,  have  been  found  and  introduced.  Among 
the  former,  for  example,  are  the  durum  wheats  introduced  in 
1898  from  Russia.  These  wheats  are  well  adapted  to  the 
semi-arid  regions  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  extending 
from  Texas  to  North  Dakota,  which  are  too  dry  for  ordinary 
wheat.  Besides,  the  durum  wheats  are  especially  valuable 
for  the  manufacture  of  macaroni.  The  production  of  these 
wheats,  in  1919,  amounted  to  about  $50,000,000.  Among 
other  plants  that  have  been  successfully  introduced  are 
Japanese  rice,  date  palm,  Swedish  oats,  Turkestan  alfalfa, 
and  Egyptian  cotton. 

The  work  of  the  government  in  plant  introduction  is 
deserving  of  more  than  this  brief  account.  Further  infor- 
mation may  be  found  by  consulting  recent  yearbooks  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Sudden  appearance  of  new  plants  among  the  old.  —  Oc- 
casionally, in  nature,  a  plant  will  appear  which  is  noticeably 
different  from  its  companions.  The  same  is  true  of  culti- 
vated plants.  When  a  plant  is  found  that  is  clearly  different 
from  others  of  its  kind,  it  may  be  better  than  the  others . 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


It  should  be  watched  closely  and  the  seed  saved  in  order  to 
propagate  more  like  it,  so  that  it  may  be  tested.  It  may 
prove  to  be  of  no  especial  importance,  or  it  may  have  some 
very  desirable  qualities  not  possessed 
by  others  of  its  kind. 

A  number  of  important  cultivated 
plants  seem  to  have  originated  in  this 
way.  The  Fultz  wheat  is  an  example. 
In  Pennsylvania  in  the  summer  of 
1862,  Abraham  Fultz  when  going 
through  his  field  of  Lancaster  wheat, 
which  is  a  bearded  variety,  happened 
to  notice  a  plant  whose  heads  were 
not  bearded.  This  was  so  unusual 
that  he  kept  close  watch  over  the 
plant  during  the  remainder  of  the 
growing  season,  and  at  harvest  time 
he  saved  the  heads  of  it.  He  re- 
moved the  grains,  planted  them  in 
a  plot  to  themselves,  and  later  similar 
ing  from  pollen  grain  on  beardless  plants  appeared.  Again  he 

the  stigma  to  embryo  sac  ,     ,,  ,       -,  ,  ,.,, 

which     contains     the    egg      saved    the    seed    and    Panted    a    Still 

nucleus.  larger  plot.  This  operation  was  re- 
has  come  from  the  pollen  to  plant  his  entire  farm.  He  after- 
grain  by  means  of  the  pollen  wardg  iume^  over  to  the  U.  S.  Depart- 
tube  —  C  and  B  unite,  to 

form    the    fertilized    egg.     ment   of  Agriculture  a  considerable 
amount  of  seed  for  distribution.   Since 
wheat    has    been 


Pistil  of  flower  showing 
single  ovule  at  time  of 
pollination. 

A.  Pollen    tube    extend- 


For    details    see   figure  on 
page  151 


then   the    Fultz 
considered  one  of  the  best  varieties  adapted  to  the  eastern 
part  of  the  Corn  Belt. 

The  Clawson  wheat,  a  variety  with  white  grains,  first 


PLANT  IMPROVEMENT 


appeared  in  a  field  of  Fultz,  in  1865.  The  Rudy  originated 
in  a  large  field  of  wheat  near  Troy,  Ohio,  in  1871.  The  Con- 
cord grape,  nectarine,  navel  orange,  and  many  other  valuable 
kinds  of  fruit  probably  originated 
in  a  similar  way. 

Improving  plants  by  crossing.— 
In  order  to  understand  crossing 
or  hybridizing,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  review  briefly  the  way  in 
which  plants  produce  seed.  For 
this  review  we  shall  begin  with 
the  flower.  The  essential  parts 
of  the  flower  are  the  stamens  and 
pistil.  Each  stamen  has  at  its 
end  a  small  sack  containing 
minute  structures  called  pollen 
grains.  The  pistil  is  enlarged  at 
its  lower  end,  forming  the  ovary 
in  which  one  or  more  small  bodies 
are  located  from  which  seed  are 
developed.  But  these  bodies  are 
unable  to  develop  into  seed  with- 
out the  aid  of  pollen.  A  pollen 
grain  which  may  happen  to  lodge 
on  the  upper  end  of  the  pistil, 
called  stigma,  sends  an  out- 
growth like  a  slender  thread, 
called  pollen  tube,  down  the  neck 
of  the  pistil  into  the  ovary.  A 
small  part  of  the  pollen  substance  passes  down  this  thread, 
or  pollen  tube,  and  when  it  reaches  the  ovary  unites  with  the 
seed-producing  body  inside.  This  union  is  called  fertili- 


Embryo   sac   of  lily   showing 
fertilization   taking  place. 

A.  Pollen  tube. 

B.  Egg. 

C.  Fertilizing     element     (nu- 
cleus)   from  pollen  tube  uniting 
with  B.    From  the  cell  produced 
by  this  union  the   germ  of  the 
seed  develops. 


152  PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM  PRACTICE 

zation,  and  after  it  occurs  the  seed-producing  body  may 
develop  into  a  seed. 

The  signihcance  of  fertilization  lies  in  the  fact  that  each 
of  the  two  bodies  which  unite  in  this  process  carries  with  it 
characters  of  the  parent  producing  it.  If  the  fertilizing 
bodies  are  from  the  same  plant,  the  seed  which  is  formed  by 
the  union  will  produce  a  plant  like  the  parent  plant.  But 
if  these  bodies  come  from  different  plants,  such  as  different 
varieties  of  cowpeas,  the  seed  formed  from  this  union  will 
produce  a  plant  in  some  respects  unlike  either  parent,  but 
having  some  characters  of  each.  In  such  instances  the  new 
plant  will  combine  the  characters  of  both  parents,  although 
some  of  the  characters  of  each  will  dominate,  or  make  ob- 
scure similar  characters  of  the  other. 

By  observing  the  principles  of  heredity,  plant  breeders  are 
able  to  combine  the  desirable  characters  of  different  parents. 
Such  a  procedure  is  known  as  crossing  or  hybridizing.  For 
example,  a  smooth,  bearded  variety  of  wheat  may  be  crossed 
with  a  rough,  beardless  variety  so  as  to  produce  a  smooth, 
beardless  variety.  This  will  be  a  combination  of  characters 
that  did  not  exist  before,  and  in  this  case,  probably  a  more 
desirable  combination  than  that  possessed  by  either  of  the 
parents.  An  almost  endless  variety  of  useful  plants  has 
been  developed  in  this  way.  ' 

Some  of  the  results  of  crossing  are  so  wonderful  as  to 
attract  wide  attention.  Perhaps  the  best  known  plant 
breeder  who  made  use  of  this  method  is  Luther  Burbank. 
Among  the  plants  that  he  has  been  able  to  develop  are  va- 
rieties of  plums,  prunes,  potatoes,  chestnuts,  walnuts,  and 
many  flowers,  such  as  the  Shasta  daisy. 

Scarcely  less  wonderful  is  the  work  of  Professor  N.  E. 
Hansen  of  the  South  Dakota  Agricultural  College.  He  has 


PLANT  IMPROVEMENT 


153 


developed  a  plum  which  will  withstand  the  severe  cold  as 
far  north  as  Winnepeg,  a  kind  of  alfalfa  that  will  grow  in  a 
cold  climate,  and  many  other  interesting  and  valuable  plants. 
Reference  should  be  made  to  the  results  achieved  by  the 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  in  which  G.  W.  Oliver  has 
had  a  prominent  part,  as  an  expert  propagator.  Among 


A  good  type  of  ear  of  corn  for  field  selection.  It  is  growing  on 
a  vigorous  plant.  The  ear  is  at  the  right  height  and  has  a  desirable 
angle.  (Indiana  Agr.  Exp.  Station.) 

these  results  are  a  rust-proof  asparagus,   improved  varieties 
of  lettuce,  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  and  of  many  other  plants. 

Improving  plants  by  means  of  selection.  —  The  average 
farmer  will  not  have  the  time  or  experience  to  use  the  methods 
just  described  to  secure  better  plants,  except  the  method  of 
looking  out  for  new  plants  that  may  appear  in  his  fields. 
He  should  know  about  them,  however,  so  that  he  may  secure 
the  new  plants  introduced  by  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry 
or  developed  by  expert  plant  breeders,  if  it  seems  to  his 
advantage. 


154  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

The  method  of  improving  plants  by  selection  is  one  that 
every  farmer  should  employ  on  his  own  farm.  Selection  is 
based  upon  the  fact  that  plant  characters  are  handed  down, 
or  inherited,  from  one  generation  to  another.  The  appli- 
cation of  selection  lies  in  the  use  of  seed  from  desirable  plants. 
There  is  no  way  of  telling  by  the  appearance  of  the  seed 
whether  it  will  produce  low-  or  high-yielding  plants.  For 
example,  several  ears  of  corn  may  be  nearly  perfect  in  size, 
shape,  and  in  other  desirable  qualities.  But  there  is  no 
means  of  knowing  whether  or  not  these  desirable  qualities 
will  appear  in  the  crop  produced  from  these  ears,  unless 
each  ear  is  tested  separately.  In  fact,  there  is  apt  to  be 
much  difference  in  their  ability  to  produce. 

A  description  of  an  actual  trial  of  this  kind  will  illustrate 
this  point.  Thirty  ears  of  corn,  uniformly  good  in  outward 
appearance,  were  used.  Enough  seed  from  each  ear  was 
planted  to  produce  a  row  of  one  hundred!  hills.  "When  the 
rows  were  harvested  separately  and  the  corn  weighed,  the 
results  showed  a  variation  in  yield,  per  row,  from  thirty  to 
one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds.  Only  five  rows  gave  a 
yield  of  over  seventy-five  pounds  each.  In  other  words, 
the  trial  showed  only  five  ears  of  high-yielding  corn,  the  rest 
were  low. 

There  are  several  steps  to  be  observed  in  securing  better 
plants  by  selection.  These  may  be  made  clear  by  using  corn 
as  an  illustration. 

Initial  selection.  —  Initial  selection  is  made  in  the  field 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  growing  season.  Those  plants 
showing  vigorous  development,  having  broad,  dark  green 
leaves,  well-formed  ears  neither  too  upright  nor  too  pendant, 
a  convenient  height,  well-developed  brace  roots  to  prevent 
lodging,  an  absence  of  suckers,  and  other  desirable  characters, 


PLANT  IMPROVEMENT  155 

should  be  marked  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  them  easily 
noticed  when  the,  corn  is  husked.  When  mature,  the  ears 
from  all  the  selected  plants  are  kept  separate  and  cared  for 
according  to  suggestions  made  in  Chapter  VIII. 

Final  selection.  —  Final  selection  may  be  put  into  practice 
shortly  before  planting  time  in  the  spring.  First,  each  ear 
saved  should  be  examined  carefully  to  discover  such  characters 
as  injuries  from  disease,  poor  shape  of  ear  or  kernels,  poorly 


Harvesting  at  end  of  an  ear-to-row  test.  Shows  method  of  determining 
which  seed  ears  have  produced  the  greatest  yield.  (U.S.  Dept.  of  Agri- 
culture.) 

filled  butt  or  tip,  and  any  other  features  undesirable  in  an 
ear  of  corn.  Defective  ears  should  be  thrown  out.  Next, 
a  germinating  test  should  be  made  of  the  remainder  and  the 
ones  showing  poor  germination  should  be  thrown  out.  From 
the  remaining  ears,  twenty  to  fifty  of  the  best  should  be 
selected  for  the  ear-to-row  trial,  the  others  may  be  used  for 
planting  the  regular  crop. 

Ear-to-row  trial.  —  An  ear-to-row  test,  as  the  name  indi- 
cates, means  the  planting  of  one  row  from  each  ear,  usually 
a  row  of  one  hundred  hills.  A  corner  of  the  field  which  is  to 


156  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

be  planted  in  corn  is  laid  off  in  rows  for  the  test  plot.  Each 
row  is  numbered  to  correspond  to  the  number  of  the  ear  that 
is  to  furnish  seed  for  that  row.  About  350  kernels  are  taken 
for  planting  from  each  ear  and  placed  in  a  bag  marked  with 
the  number  of  the  ear.  The  remainder  is  left  on  the  cob 
and  put  away  for  possible  future  use.  After  this  preparation, 
each  row  is  planted  according  to  number,  row  number  one 
from  ear  number  one,  etc.  The  plot  should  receive  the  same 
care  and  cultivation  as  the  rest  of  the  field.  During  the 
growing  season  the  various  rows  in  the  test  plot  should  be 
examined  from  time  to  time,  and  those  plants  showing  disease 
or  other  faults  should  be  detasseled.  When  fully  ripe,  the 
corn  from  each  row  is  harvested  separately  and  weighed. 
The  corn  from  rows  having  the  highest  yield  is  saved  for 
further  trial.  The  rest  may  be  used  for  any  other  purpose. 
Ten  or  twenty  of  the  best  ears  from  the  highest-yielding 
rows  should  be  saved  for  the  second-year  test. 

Multiplying  plot  and  second-year  test.  —  For  the  ear-to- 
row  test  of  the  second  year,  select  for  use  the  best  ears  pro- 
duced from  the  high-yielding  rows  of  the  first  year's  test 
and  the  kernels  left  on  the  ears  saved  out  of  the  original 
planting,  which  correspond  to  these  high-yielding  rows. 

For  the  multiplying  plot,  select  the  good  ears  remaining 
in  the  high-yielding  rows  and  plant  in  a  separate  plot  to 
furnish  seed  for  the  farm.  Since  all  the  seed  used  in  it  is  from 
high-yielding  rows  of  the  original  test  plot,  it  is  reasonable 
to  expect  the  multiplying  plot  to  furnish  high-producing 
seed  corn.  By  this  means  of  selection,  high-yielding  seed 
may  be  developed  in  time  for  general  planting  the  third 
year,  but  it  is  desirable  to  continue  the  ear-to-row  trial  a 
few  more  years,  until  several  high-yielding  strains  have  been 
fully  established. 


PLANT  IMPROVEMENT 


157 


1       1 

1           1 

6 

H 

1 

J 

K 

The  yield  may  be  increased  further  by  crossing.  The 
result  of  the  ear-to-row  tests  is  really  the  separation  of  high- 
yielding  strains  from  a  mixture  of  low,  medium,  and  high- 
yielding  plants.  Experiments  made  under  the  direction  of 
the  Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  have 
shown  that  an  increase  of  as  much 
as  ten  bushels  per  acre  may  be 
secured  by  using  seed  produced 
by  the  crossing  of  two  high-yield- 
ing strains,  as  compared  with 
the  yield  of  either  parent  alone. 
In  farm  practice,  all  that  is  neces- 
sary is  to  plant  alternate  rows  of 
two  high-yielding  strains  that 
have  been  developed  by  the  ear- 
to-row  test.  The  seed  thus  pro- 
duced is  used  for  the  next  year's 
planting.  A  separate  plot  of  each 
pure  strain  must  be  maintained  in 
order  to  keep  up  a  supply  of  seed 
for  future  crossing. 

A  recent  modification  of  this 
plan  has  even  greater  promise.  It 
is  essentially  a  double  cross.  Two 
pairs  of  high-yielding  strains  aret 
crossed.  The  plants  resulting  from  this  cross  are  recrossed. 
Seed  from  these  plants  produce  a  strain  of  corn  of  higher 
yield  than  the  original  stock.  After  the  final  strain  has  been 
established  it  may  be  maintained  by  ordinary  careful  methods 
of  selection. 

While  the  method  of  improvement  just  outlined  may  seem 
somewhat  difficult,  it  really  requires  but  little  time  and  effort. 


Diagram  showing  double  cross 
of  corn  to  secure  increase  in 
yield. 

A,  B,  and  C,  D  are  ears  of 
high-yielding  strains  selected 
by  ear-to-row  method. 

A  and  B  are  crossed,  produc- 
ing E. 

C  and  D  are  crossed,  produc- 
ing F. 

E  and  F  are  then  crossed,  pro- 
ducing G,  H,  I,  J,  K,  etc. 
These  ears  furnish  seed  for 
general  planting,  producing 
maximum  yield. 


158  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM   PRACTICE 

It  should  result  in  the  development  of  seed  capable  of  pro- 
ducing a  much  higher  average  yield  than  that  obtained  by 
the  usual  methods  of  corn  selection.  An  increase  of  at  least 
ten  bushels  per  acre  is  not  too  much  to  expect.  There  is 
probably  no  other  means  of  increasing  production  with  as 
little  additional  labor  and  expense  as  this. 

Four-hill-unit  method  of  improving  potatoes  by  selec- 
tion. The  same  principles  of  selection  are  used  in  the 
tuber-unit  method  of  improving  potatoes.  The  essential 
features  are  as  follows : 

The  initial  selection  is  made  in  the  field  of  good  tubers 
from  high-yielding  hills.  The  tubers  selected  should  each 
weigh  about  five  ounces,  should  be  entirely  free  from  evi- 
dences of  disease,  and  should  conform  to  type. 

Each  tuber  is  cut  into  quarters  and  planted  in  four  hills, 
the  four  hills  forming  one  unit.  Other  units  are  planted  in 
the  same  way,  but,  to  avoid  confusion,  a  greater  space  is 
left  between  units  than  between  the  hills  of  a  single  unit. 
For  the  test  plot  of  the  first  season  at  least  one  hundred 
units  should  be  started.  A  system  of  numbering  should  be 
followed  in  order  that  an  accurate  record  of  each  unit  may 
be  kept.  A  careful  observation  of  the  plants  should  be  made 
from  time  to  time,  and  a  record  kept  of  such  qualities  as 
vigor,  growth,  freedom  from  disease,  and  of  other  points 
that  may  be  of  value  in  determining  the  best  plants.  All 
weak  and  undesirable  units  should  be  eliminated  entirely  as 
soon  as  discovered.  This  may  be  done  either  by  checking 
off  their  records  and  paying  no  more  attention  to  them  or  by 
removing  the  plants  entirely. 

Finally,  the  tubers  of  each  unit  are  harvested  separately 
and  put  into  a  separate  bag.  Only  those  tubers  of  the  highest 
yielding  units  should  be  preserved.  These  should  be  further 


PLANT  IMPROVEMENT  159 

examined  for  quality,  size,  and  trueness  to  type,  and  only 
those  units  that  come  up  to  a  good  standard  should  be  re- 
tained. Ten  of  the  best  tubers  of  the  selected  units  are  to 
be  used  for  the  next  year's  test. 

The  second  year  each  ten  tubers  saved  from  the 
desirable  units  of  the  first  year  are  quartered  and  planted 
to  a  unit  of  forty  hills.  The  same  procedure  is  followed  as 
in  the  first  season.  The  best  tubers  of  the  best  forty-hill 
units  should  be  saved  for  planting  the  third  season.  By  this 
time,  high-yielding  strains  of  desirable  tubers  will  be  es- 
tablished, with  enough  tubers  to  plant  a  large  plot.  But 
forty  or  more  exceptionally  good  tubers  from  the  best  forty- 
hill  units  should  be  saved  to  continue  the  best  pure  lines  or 
units.  At  the  end  of  the  third  year  enough  seed  of  high- 
yielding  strains  will  be  secured  for  most  of  the  planting  needed 
for  the  farm.  Besides,  the  extra  tubers  may  be  sold  for  seed 
at  high  prices. 

The  investment  of  time  and  labor  in  developing  a  superior 
strain  of  potatoes  by  this  method  is  small  compared  with 
the  results  that  may  be  attained.  For  example,  one  farmer 
was  able  in  a  few  years  to  establish  a  strain  which  gave  him 
a  yield  averaging  282  bushels  per  acre  for  nine  years,  while 
his  neighbors  secured  an  average  yield  of  approximately  only 
150  bushels.  The  difference  of  132  bushels  per  acre  would 
seem  to  be  a  good  return  for  the  time  and  trouble  needed  to 
establish  a  high-yielding  strain  of  potatoes. 

Improving  other  plants  by  selection.— This  same  meth- 
od of  getting  better  plants  by  selection  may  be  applied  to 
other  crops  such  as  wheat,  oats,  barley,  etc.  In  this  case 
smaller  plots  should  be  used,  otherwise  the  procedure  is 
essentially  the  same  as  for  corn. 

In  several  states  plant-improvement  associations  have  been 


160  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

formed  for  cooperative  work  in  developing  high-yielding 
strains  of  different  crops,  by  selection.  The  results  obtained 
in  Wisconsin  by  such  associations  illustrate  what  can  be 
done  for  plant  improvement  in  this  way.  These  associations, 
with  the  assistance  of  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  have  developed  high-yielding  strains  of  dent  and 
flint  corn,  barley,  wheat,  oats  and  other  farm  plants.  Similar 
results  have  been  obtained  through  cooperative  work  among 
farmers  of  Indiana  and  the  State  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  here  to  make  a  suggestion  to 
the  boys  living  in  a  corn-  or  potato-growing  region.  In  a 
few  years  any  boy  could  develop  corn  or  potato  tubers  for 
seed  which  would  bring  high  prices  on  the  market.  If  such 
a  scheme  were  begun  when  he  was  in  the  eighth  grade,  his 
product  would  be  ready  for  sale  by  his  second  year  in  high 
school  and  would  continue,  becoming  larger  each  year.  In 
this  way,  he  could  provide  means  to  continue  his  education 
in  an  agricultural  college  or  elsewhere.  In  addition  he  would 
not  only  secure  a  return  for  himself,  but  would  be  doing  a 
real  service  to  the  farmers  of  his  community. 


CHAPTER  XV 

PLANT  DISEASES 

Interference  with  plant  growth.  —  The  influence  of  a 
fertile,  carefully  prepared  and  cultivated  soil  and  of  high- 
yielding  plants  in  crop  production  has  been  considered  some- 
what in  detail.  But  even  when  these  important  and  necessary 
provisions  for  producing  crops  are  made,  production  will  not 
necessarily  come  up  to  its  possibilities,  owing  to  the  inter- 
ference of  harmful  agencies  that  are  always  operating  to  a 
certain  extent. 

Such  agencies  are  plant  diseases,  weeds  and  insects.  While 
the  losses  occasioned  by  them  cannot  be  prevented  entirely, 
they  may  be  controlled  in  some  measure.  Such  control  must 
be  directed  by  an  understanding  of  the  nature  of  the  injuries 
and  of  the  agent  concerned.  In  order  to  present  a  basis  for 
such  an  understanding,  a  chapter  will  be  devoted  to  the 
discussion  of  some  of  the  most  important  facts  relating  to 
each  of  these  agencies. 

What  is  meant  by  plant  diseases.  —  Our  association  with 
plants  is  largely  with  those  that  bear  flowers  and  produce 
seeds.  But  there  are  many  thousand  kinds  of  other  plants, 
sometimes  referred  to  as  lower  plants,  which  we  do  not  easily 
notice.  Of  the  lower  plants,  those  of  one  group,  known  as 
fungi,  are  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  chlorophyll,  or 
leaf  green,  and  consequently  are  unable  to  make  carbo- 
hydrates, such  as  sugar  and  starch.  For  this  reason  the 

161 


162  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

» 
fungi   must  get  such   substances  already  made.     Some  of 

them  —  molds,  mushrooms,  puff  balls,  and  species  of  bacteria 
-  rely  upon  dead  material,  such  as  the  remains  of  other 
plants,  for  their  supply  of  food  material.  Others  —  rusts, 
smuts,  mildew,  blights,  and  other  kinds  of  bacteria  —  satisfy 
their  needs  by  attaching  themselves  to  other  living  plants. 
These  latter  are  called  parasitic  fungi,  and  the  plant  that 
gives  them  a  living  is  called  the  host.  Since  a  parasitic 
fungus  deprives  its  host  of  starch  and  other  food  material, 
and  makes  harmful  poisons,  it  weakens  and  otherwise  injures 
the  host,  thus  producing  conditions  known  as  disease. 

In  order  to  understand  how  these  injuries  are  made  and 
how  disease  spreads  from  one  plant  to  another,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  consider  how  fungi  grow. 

How  fungi  grow.  —  There  are  two  essential  parts  of  most 
fungi:  One,  the  food-getting  part,  is  composed  of  a  net  work 
of  fine  threads  or  tubes,  called  the  mycelium,  which  usually 
penetrates  the  food  substance  on  which  the  fungus  grows. 
The  other,  the  reproductive  part,  is  composed  also  of  fine 
threads  which  bear  small  bodies  called  spores.  The  spores,  be- 
ing light,  are  easily  blown  about  by  the  wind  or  being  sticky 
are  carried  by  insects,  animals,  or  water  to  different  places, 
where,  if  conditions  are  favorable,  they  develop  into  plants 
like  the  ones  that  produced  them.  Sometimes  the  spores 
are  borne  free  at  the  ends  of  the  spore-bearing  threads,  and 
thus  are  easily  transferred  from  the  parent  fungus  to  other 
places,  ready  to  start  new  fungus  growths.  Sometimes  they 
are  enclosed  in  cases.  In  this  instance,  the  walls  of  the  case 
break  when  the  spores  are  ripe,  thus  releasing  them  for  dis- 
tribution. 

Bacteria  have  already  been  described  in  connection  with 
the  soil,  but  should  be  considered  here  with  fungi,  since  they 


PLANT  DISEASES 


163 


behave  in  many  respects  like  fungi  and  are  regarded  as  such 
by  many  botanists.  Bacteria  grow  to  a  certain  size  and  then 
divide.  This  growth  and  division  continues  until  a  great 
number  of  individuals  is  formed.  Under  certain  conditions, 
such  as  lack  of  moisture  or  food,  they  cease  to  develop,  but 
undergo  changes  which  enable  them  to  keep  alive.  When 
in  such  a  condition  they  may  be  carried  about  by  the  wind 
or  other  means  until  con- 
ditions favorable  for  re- 
newed activity  are  met. 
Some  bacteria  get  their 
food  from  other  living 
plants,  thus  becoming 
parasites,  and  cause 
disease.  An  example  of 
this  type  is  the  organism 
causing  pear  blight. 

In   order   to   recognize 
the  way  in  which   fungi 


Diagrams  showing  essential  parts  of  the 
black  mold. 

A.   Showing  how  spore  cases  are  related 


grow,  it  might  be  profita-     to  other  parts  of  the  mold. 

ble  to  study  the  common    .  Jde  Single  spore  case   showing   sp01 
black  mold  as  it  is  seen  on 

bread  left  in  damp  places.  The  black  mold  does  not  ordin- 
arily injure  plants  by  causing  disease,  but  a  study  of  its  man- 
ner of  producing  spores  will  aid  in  the  understanding  of  par- 
asitic fungi  which  are  harder  to  study.  At  first  the  black 
mold  consists  of  a  net  work  of  fine  .threads  spreading  over 
and  extending  into  the  bread.  Later  very  small,  dark  specks 
may  be  seen  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  mass  of  threads. 
On  close  inspection  it  will  be  seen  that  each  black  speck  is  a 
tiny  ball  borne  upon  the  end  of  an  upright  thread.  When 
examined  with  a  lens,  the  ball  will  be  seen  to  be  filled  with 


i64 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


-4* 


Mildew 


still  smaller  bodies.  These  small  bodies  are  spores.  If  some 
of  these  spores  are  scattered  over  the  surface  of  a  piece  of 
damp  bread,  each  will  start  to  grow  and  a  new  growth  of 
mold  will  soon  appear. 

Powdery  mildews,  which  frequently  are  found  on  the  leaves  of 
the  lilac,  rose,  and  other  plants,  are  parasitic  fungi.  Small  pro- 
jections, called  haustoria,  extend  from  the  threads  and  secure 

food  from  the  living 
cells  of  the  leaf .  The 
threads  are  on  the 
surface  of  the  leaf, 
giving  it  the  appear- 
ance of  being  covered 
with  fine  down  or 
cobweb.  Among 
these  threads  on  the 
surface  of  the  leaf, 
spores  are  to  be  found, 
some  uncovered  and 
others  enclosed  in 
spore  cases.  Some  of 
these  spores  are  carried,  when  ripe,  by  the  wind  or  by  other 
means  to  uninfected  leaves  where  they  develop  into  new 
fungi. 

Means  of  control  of  plant  diseases.  —  There  are  several 
general  methods  of  control  of  plant  diseases. 

One  method  is  based  upon  the  destruction  of  spores  which 
may  infect  healthy  plants.  This  is  accomplished  when  seed 
is  disinfected  by  means  of  a  chemical  compound  such  as 
formaldehyde  or  corrosive  sublimate,  or  the  spores  killed  by 
means  of  heat.  For  example,  seed  potatoes  may  be  treated 
with  formaldehyde  before  planting.  Oats  may  be  treated 


A.  Chains  of  summer  spores;  i  and  2  different 
stages  of  development. 

B.  (i)  Spore  case  containing  sacs  of  winter 
spores. 

(2)  A  sac  showing  winter  spores. 
(Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 


PLANT  DISEASES  165 

with  formaldehyde  and  wheat  with  hot  water  to  kill  the  smut 
spores.  A  different  mode  of  application  is  illustrated  in  the 
control  of  onion  smut.  In  this  case  a  formaldehyde  drip 
attached  to  the  seed  drill  kills  the  smut  spores  in  the  soil  im- 
mediately surrounding  the  seed  and  thus  protects  the  young 
onion  plant  from  infection. 

A  second  method  is  that  of  spraying  the  surface  of  the 
leaves,  fruits  and  branches  of  the  host  plants  with  a  fungicidal 
compound  such  as  Bordeaux  Mixture  or  lime  sulfur.  By  this 
means  the  spray  compound  forms  a  protective  layer  and 
poisons  any  spores  which  may  alight  on  the  host  as  soon  as 
these  spores  begin  to  germinate.  For  example,  apples  are 
sprayed  to  control  scab  and  other  diseases,  and  potatoes 
are  sprayed  in  the  Northeastern  States  to  control  late 
blight. 

A  third  method  is  that  of  selecting  disease-free  seed.  This 
is  practiced  to  control  corn  root-rot,  potato  diseases,  and 
sweet  potato  diseases.  In  some  cases,  as  in  that  of  corn 
root-rot,  seed  testing  is  an  important  item,  while  in  other 
cases  it  is  necessary  to  secure  seed  from  fields  or  from  regions 
where  certain  diseases  are  not  present. 

A  fourth  method  is  that  of  varying  planting  dates  so  that 
crops  will  escape  certain  diseases.  For  example,  the  earlier 
spring  wheat  is  planted  the  less  will  be  the  loss  from  wheat 
rust.  Another  example  is  the  growing  of  seed  beans  during 
the  hot  weather  of  the  fall  in  Louisiana  when  the  temperature 
is  so  high  that  it  controls  the  anthracnose  disease. 

A  fifth  method  is  that  of  eradicating  other  plants,  usually 
worthless,  which  may  harbor  plant  diseases  destructive  to 
crops.  For  example,  the  common  barberry  serves  as  host  of 
wheat  rust  and  is  being  generally  destroyed  for  that  reason; 
likewise  the  red  cedar  is  the  host  of  apple  rust.  Certain 


1 66  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

weeds  are  hosts  of  fungi  that  may  infect  and  cause  diseases 
of  cultivated  plants. 

A  sixth  method  is  that  of  sanitation.  It  is  usually  accom- 
plished by  rotation  of  crops  so  that  one  crop  is  not  exposed  to 
infection  from  the  residue  of  the  preceding  crop.  Rotation 
of  crops  is  important  in  controlling  corn  smut,  tomato  wilt, 
wheat  scab,  and  the  root-knot  disease  which  is  very  severe 
in  the  South. 

A  seventh  method  of  disease  control  is  the  use  of  resistant 
or  disease-escaping  varieties  of  plants.  The  method  is  based 
upon  the  fact  that  some  plants  are  more  hardy  and  less  liable 
to  infection  than  are  others.  One  object  of  plant  breeding  is 
to  produce  plants  with  a  high  resistance  to  disease,  and  con- 
siderable progress  has  been  made  in  this  direction.  The  use 
of  resistant  varieties  is  especially  important  where  it  is  im- 
possible to  control  diseases  by  the  other  methods.  For 
example,  asparagus  rust  seemed  impossible  of  control  until 
resistant  varieties  were  developed.  Yellows-resistant  cabbage 
is  another  example. 

Importance  of  controlling  plant  diseases.  —  The  total  loss 
of  cultivated  plants  in  the  United  States,  due  to  plant  diseases, 
has  been  estimated  at  $600,000,000  annually.  When  we  re- 
member that  there  is  no  kind  of  plant  that  may  not  be 
infected  by  some  disease,  these  figures  are  not  surprising. 
In  the  control  of  plant  diseases,  as  in  the  control  of  human 
diseases,  preventive  measures  are  the  most  important. 

The  common  diseases  should  be  known  so  well  as  to  be 
recognized  easily,  so  that  measures  for  control  may  be  taken 
in  time  to  prevent  much  damage.  The  diseases  of  the  culti- 
vated crops  of  each  state  have  been  studied  by  members  of 
the  staff  of  the  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  and 
of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  results  of  these 


PLANT  DISEASES 


167 


studies  are  usually  published  in  bulletins  which  furnish  de- 
tailed information  in  regard  to  particular  diseases,  that  cannot 
be  given  in  a  text  like  this.  These  references,  as  well  as 
those  indicated  in  the  appendix,  should  be  used  for  further 
study  and  information.  Such  a  study  will  be  worth  much 
more  if  the  diseases  of  the  plants  which  are  common  on  the 
home  farm  are  used  as  a  basis, 
and  through  such  study  a 
means  of  control  put  into  opera- 
tion. 

Common  parasitic  fungi.  - 
Detailed  study  of  most  parasitic 
fungi  is  difficult  and  requires 
special  training.  It  is  possible, 
however,  to  recognize  many  com- 
mon plant  diseases  by  noticing 
the  effects  produced  on  host 
plants.  These  effects  may  be 
regarded  as  symptoms  of  disease. 
They  are  classified  according  to 
the  general  appearance  of  the 
injury,  as  follows:  rot,  blight, 
wilt,  mildew,  leaf-spot,  scab,  canker,  smut,  and  rust. 

Rot.  —  The  name  itself  suggests  the  nature  of  the  injury 
caused  by  this  class  of  diseases.  The  fleshy  parts  of  a  plant 
are  most  often  affected,  although  the  injury  is  found  on  other 
parts  of  some  plants.  Examples : 

Bitter  rot  of  the  apple.  —  It  appears,  at  first,  on  the  fruit 
as  small,  round,  rotten  spots.  Later  the  spot  becomes  dry 
and  dark  colored.  The  spot  increases  in  diameter,  gradually 
involving  the  entire  fruit.  The  surface  becomes  wrinkled, 
and,  toward  the  center  of  the  rotten  area,  small  elevations 


Diagram  of  section  of  a  leaf  spot 
of  early  blight    of  potato. 

A.  Spores. 

B.  Withered    remains    of   cells 
of  leaf.     Note    how    much    this 
portion  of  the  leaf  has  shrunken. 

(Adapted  from  Rands:  Wis- 
consin Agricultural  Experiment 
Station.) 


1 68  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

(pustules)  bearing  spores  appear.  This  disease  is  most 
noticeable  about  the  time  the  fruit  begins  to  ripen. 

Brown  rot.  —  This  is  a  common  injury  of  the  peach,  plum 
and  cherry.  The  fungus  attacks  the  fruit  as  it  approaches 
maturity,  first  appearing  as  a  round,  dark  spot  and  gradually 
extending  over  the  entire  fruit.  As  decay  advances  small 
bunches  of  brown  threads  appear,  at  first  near  the  center  of 
the  original  spot,  and  rapidly  extend  until  the  whole  fruit  is 
covered.  If  the  infected  fruit  remains  on  the  tree  it  shrivels 
up  into  what  is  known  as  "  mummy  fruit,"  and  may  hang 
there  during  the  winter.  On  examination  of  "  mummy  fruits  " 
some  will  be  found  bearing  small  mushroom-like  bodies. 
These  bodies  bear  spores  which  may  start  a  new  infection. 

Black  rot.  —  This  rot  attacks  grapes.  It  begins  as  dark 
purple  spots  which  gradually  involve  the  whole  grape.  Later 
the  grape  shrivels  up  and  turns  black. 

Bacterial  soft  rot.  —  This  is  a  very  foul  smelling,  slimy,  soft 
rot  of  the  tissues  of  fleshy  vegetables  such  as  cabbage  head, 
carrots,  turnips,  onions,  and  potatoes  in  storage.  This 
rot  may  be  checked  by  keeping  the  temperature  low,  by 
thoroughly  drying  all  the  surfaces  before  the  vegetables  are 
put  in  storage,  if  necessary,  by  exposing  them  to  the  sun, 
and  by  avoiding  bruises  and  wounds  as  much  as  possible. 

Dry  rot  of  potatoes.  —  This  is  the  common  rot  of  potatoes 
under  ordinary  cellar  storage  conditions.  It  is  caused  by  a 
fungus  which  grows  well  at  rather  low  temperatures  but 
which  as  a  rule  can  not  invade  the  potato  except  through  the 
wounds.  Potatoes  should  be  handled  as  carefully  as  apples 
if  rot  is  to  be  avoided. 

Blue  mold  rot.  —  This  is  the  common  mushy,  soft  rot  of 
apples  in  storage,  and  as  a  rule  follows  wounds  or  the  diseased 
spots  caused  by  other  parasites. 


PLANT  DISEASES  169 

Blight.  —  This  name  is  applied  to  diseases  which  result  in 
a  rather  sudden  death  of  the  host  plant  or  portions  of  it,  such  as 
leaves  or  branches.  Examples: 

Fire  blight.  —  This  is  a  disease  caused  by  bacteria.     Al- 
though bacteria  are  not  true  fungi,  they  are  like  the  fungi  in 
their  food   requirements, 
and  some  cause  injuries 
similar  to  those  made  by 
parasitic  fungi.    Fire 
blight  attacks  the  leaves 
and  twigs  of  apple   and 
pear  trees,  causing  them 
to  shrivel  and  blacken  as 
if  burned.    The  leaves  of          Spores  o£  ^  blight  rf  potato_ 
the  diseased  twigs  do  not       A    Various  stages  of  development  of 
fall  as  do  the  leaves  of    spores, 
healthy  twigs.    This  fact       B-  Mature    sP°res-    (Wisconsin   Agri- 

cultural  Experiment  Station.) 

makes     it     possible     to 

recognize  the  blight  in  winter.     In  the  spring  the  diseased 

twigs  may  be  recognized  by  their  dead,  black  leaves. 

Bean  bacterial  blight.  —  This  is  a  destructive  disease  of  the 
bean  crop  throughout  the  country.  It  produces  large,  brown, 
parchment-like  spots  on  the  leaves,  small,  sunken,  water- 
soaked  spots  on  the  pods,  and  in  addition  may  kill  the  plant 
outright  by  forming  a  canker  on  the  stem  or  by  clogging  the 
water  tubes. 

Late  blight  of  potato.  —  This  is  the  most  destructive  disease 
of  the  potato  crop  in  the  Northeastern  States.  It  is  character- 
ized by  large,  dark  brown  spots  on  the  leaves.  These  spots 
enlarge  rapidly  involving  the  entire  leaf  surface.  The  tuber 
is  also  affected,  a  dry,  brown  rot  appearing  in  its  outer  tissues. 
Late  blight  is  caused  by  a  fungus  which  spreads  rapidly  during 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


the  cool,  wet  weather  which  frequently  prevails  in  the  North- 
ern States,  and  sweeps  across  whole  fields  in  a  very  short  time. 
Not  only  does  it  destroy  the  foliage  and  thus  reduce  the  yield 
of  tubers,  but  also  causes  a  dry  rot  of  the  outer  tissues  of  the 
tubers  and  exposes  them  to  infection  by  the  dry  rot  of  pota- 
toes mentioned  above. 

Wilt.  —  The  name  indicates  the  character  of  the  injury. 
The  roots  or  parts  of  the  stem  are  injured,  thus  cutting  off 

the  water  supply  from  the  leaves 
and  upper  parts  of  the  plant,  caus- 
ing them  to  wilt.  Examples: 

Cabbage  yellows.  —  This  is  the  most 
destructive  disease  of  cabbage  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  caused  by  a 
soil  fungus  which  invades  the  roots 
and  grows  up  through  the  water- 
conducting  system  of  the  plant  so 
as  to  make  the  vegetables  worthless 
from  the  commercial  point  of  view.  Sometimes  the  plants 
wilt,  but  ordinarily  the  most  striking  symptom  is  the  yellow 
discoloration  and  dropping  off  of  the  lower  leaves,  and  the 
failure  of  the  cabbage  to  develop  a  marketable  head.  Yellows- 
resistant  varieties  of  cabbage  have  been  developed. 

Other  examples  of  typical  wilt  diseases  are  potato  wilt, 
tomato  wilt,  and  watermelon  wilt  caused  by  soil  fungi,  and 
the  bacterial  wilt  of  cucumbers  and  muskmelons  which  is 
carried  from  plant  to  plant  by  insects. 

Mildew.  —  There  are  two  entirely  different  types  of  mildew 
among  plant  diseases.  One  of  these  types,  called  powdery 
mildew,  in  which  the  mycelium  or  vegetative  part  of  the 
fungus  lies  on  the  surface  of  the  host,  has  been  described 
in  a  previous  paragraph.  It  is  illustrated  by  such  diseases 


Germinating  spores  of  early 

blight   of   potato. 
(Wisconsin       Agricultural 
Experiment  Station.) 


PLANT  DISEASES  171 

as  the  common  powdery  mildew  of  the  lilacs,  the  powdery 
mildew  of  roses,  and  the  mildews  on  gooseberry  and  cherry 
foliage. 

The  other  type  of  mildew  is  called  downy  mildew.  This 
type  of  disease  is  caused  by  a  fungus  which  grows  within 
the  tissues  of  the  host  rather  than  on  the  surface.  It  is  illus- 
trated by  such  diseases  as  the  downy  mildew  of  the  lettuce 
which  is  very  common  in  greenhouses,  the  downy  mildew  of 
onions,  and  the  downy  mildew  of  grapes. 

Spot  diseases.  —  Many  diseases  are  characterized  by  the 
formation  of  definite  disease  spots  on  the  foliage,  fruit,  or  other 
parts  of  the  host  plant.  In  cases  of  severe  attack  these  spots 
may  become  so  numerous  as  to  lead  to  the  death  of  the  host, 
while  in  other  cases  the  effect  is  not  so  severe. 

The  leaf-spot  diseases  of  beet,  cherry,  strawberry  and  to- 
mato are  good  examples  of  this  class  of  diseases  as  they  occur 
on  foliage.  Other  examples: 

Apple  scab.  —  In  this  disease  the  spots  are  produced  on 
the  foliage  and  fruit  making  a  distinctly  scab-like  appearance. 
On  the  fruit  the  scab  first  appears  as  an  olive  green,  circular  spot. 
This  spot  enlarges  very  slowly  and  causes  damage  because 
it  disfigures  the  fruit  and  exposes  it  to  rot-producing  fungi. 

Peach  scab.  —  This  disease  is  characterized  by  small 
circular  spots  on  the  young  twigs,  and  by  very  small  freckle- 
like  spots  on  the  fruit  which  occasionally  merge  to  form  rough 
blotches  and  possibly  a  cracking  'of  the  surface  of  the  fruit. 

Practically  all  the  scab  diseases  may  be  controlled  by 
spraying. 

Galls.  —  Some  plant  diseases  result  in  the  formation  of 
large  overgrowths  of  the  host  tissue.  Club-root  of  the  cab- 
bage, crown  gall  of  raspberries,  fruit  trees  and  other  plants, 
and  the  black  wart  of  the  potato  are  good  examples. 


172  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Canker.  —  Some  tree  diseases  produce  large  dead  areas 
in  the  bark  which  enlarge  more  rapidly  than  the  tree  can 
produce  callus,  and  thus  eventually  girdle  the  trunk  or  limb 
to  cause  the  death  of  the  tree.  Such  cankers  are  produced  by 
the  fire-blight  diseases  of  apple,  by  the  Illinois  apple-tree 
canker,  by  the  chestnut-blight  disease,  and  by  the  citrus- 
canker  disease. 

Apple  canker.  —  Several  diseases  cause  cankers  on  apple 
trees.  Among  the  most  destructive  of  these  is  the  Illinois 
canker,  the  black-rot  disease,  and  fire  blight.  The  apple- 
blotch  disease  also  produces  destructive  cankers  on  young 
twigs.  Not  only  are  these  cankers  destructive  in  themselves, 
but  they  afford  means  for  the  parasites  to  live  over  winter. 

Smut.  —  Smut  diseases  are  so  named  because  of  the  char- 
acteristic masses  of  black  powdery  spores  which  are  produced 
on  the  host,  often  in  the  place  of  the  normal  grain  which  would 
otherwise  have  been  produced.  These  diseases  are  most  com- 
mon on  the  cereal  crops  such  as  corn,  wheat,  oats  and  barley, 
although  there  is  a  destructive  smut  of  onions. 

Rusts.  —  The  rust  diseases  are  characterized  by  the  yellow- 
ish or  reddish  appearance  which  the  small  powdery  cushions 
of  spores  give  to  the  surface  of  the  host  plant.  The  most 
destructive  rusts  are  probably  those  which  affect  our  cereal 
crops  such  as  the  black  stem  rust  of  wheat  or  other  cereals. 
The  leaf  rust,  also  found  on  cereals,  is  caused  by  an  entirely 
different  fungus  from  that  producing  the  black  stem  rust. 
Other  examples  of  destructive  rusts  are  the  rusts  of  the 
apple,  of  the  bean,  of  the  raspberry,  and  of  asparagus. 

The  fungi  which  cause  the  rusts  can  live  only  as  parasites 
and  do  not  grow  when  removed  from  their  special  host.  This 
is  not  true  of  many  of  the  other  diseases  that  have  been 
mentioned. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

WEEDS 

What  weeds  are.  —  Nearly  everyone  knows  that  weeds  are 
plants  which  are  not  wanted.  Someone  has  defined  a  weed 
as  a  "  plant  out  of  place."  Plants  that  are  sometimes  useful 
may  be  regarded  as  weeds  if  they  interfere  with  other  plants 
that  are  desired.  Sweet  clover  is  a  good  example  of  such 
plants.  Under  certain  circumstances  it  may  be  a  valuable 
crop  for  green  manure,  but  at  other  times  it  may  become  a 
pest. 

Losses  due  to  weeds.  —  "  The  direct  loss  in  crops,  the 
damage  to  machinery  and  stock,  and  the  decrease  in  value  of 
land  due  to  weeds,  amount,  without  question,  to  tens  of 
millions  of  dollars  each  year  —  a  loss  sustained  almost  wholly 
by  the  farmers  of  the  nations." 

How  weeds  interfere  with  crop  production.  —  An  ideal  for 
crop  production  would  be  to  have  all  the  necessary  water, 
plant  food,  and  sunshine  available  for  the  plants  being  pro- 
duced. The  presence  of  other  plants  that  make  use  of  these 
things  tends  to  interfere  with  production  by  depriving  the 
cultivated  plants  of  the  amount  needed  for  their  best  de- 
velopment. For  example,  the  amount  of  water  taken  up  by 
a  vigorous  weed  amounts  to  as  much  or  more  than  is  needed 
by  a  cultivated  plant.  Some  recent  experiments,  designed 
to  determine  accurately  the  effect  of  weeds  on  the  production 
of  corn,  showed  a  loss  in  the  yield  of  as  much  as  38  bushels 
per  acre.  This  merely  confirms  what  can  be  observed  in 
nearly  every  farming  community. 

173 


174 


PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM  PRACTICE 


Besides  depriving  cultivated  plants  of  water  and  other 
requirements  for  their  growth,  the  presence  of  weeds  in  hay 
and  forage  crops  reduces  their  value  for  feeding  purposes. 

Weeds  are  also  responsible  for  the  continuance  of  many 


Effect  of  weeds  on  crop  production.  Ground  plowed,  seed 
bed  prepared,  weeds  allowed  to  grow.  Yield,  8  bushels.  (Il- 
linois Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 

plant  diseases,  such  as  rusts,  by  acting  as  host  for  the  fungus 
until  the  cultivated  plants  appear.  Weeds  bear  a  similar 
relation  to  insects. 

Why  weeds  are  difficult  to  control.  —  Weeds  are  extremely 
successful  in  competing  with  other  plants  because  of  several 
characteristics.  They  are  able  to  withstand  adverse  con- 


WEEDS 


175 


ditions  such  as  extreme  dryness  or  cold.  In  the  most  un- 
favorable situations,  such  as  dry  roadsides,  they  are  able  to 
grow  and  produce  seed.  They  are  able  to  produce  a  great 


Importance  of  keeping  down  weeds  —  another  part  of 
experiment  illustrated  on  page  174.  Ground  plowed,  seed 
bed  prepared,  weeds  scraped  with  a  hoe.  Yield,  39.8 
bushels. 

(Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 


many  seeds  which  have  a  strong  vitality.  Weed  seeds  may 
remain  dormant  for  several  years  but  when  favorable  con- 
ditions occur  they  germinate  and  develop  into  vigorous 
plants.  The  large  number  of  seeds  is  an  advantage  to  the 
weed  because  some  of  them  are  likely  to  fall  in  places  where 


1 76  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

they  can  develop  into  plants.  A  single  tumble  weed  bearing 
115,000  seeds,  a  square  rod  of  ground  in  a  garden  where 
potatoes  had  grown  the  year  before  producing  187,884  weeds 
of  eight  different  kinds,  are  examples  of  the  great  reproductive 
capacity  of  weeds, 

A  little  observation  together  with  the  application  of  simple 
arithmetic  will  demonstrate  the  significance  of  the  large  seed 
production  of  weeds.  For  example,  an  Indian  mallow  has 
by  actual  count  about  2480  seeds  and  occupies  315  square 
inches  of  space.  If  each  of  the  2480  seeds  should  produce  a 
plant,  there  would  be  that  number  of  plants  covering  a 
space  of  20  square  rods  the  second  year.  If  each  of  these 
plants  produced  seeds  at  the  same  rate  there  would  be,  at 
the  end  of  that  season,  6,150,400  seeds.  If  each  of  these 
plants  produced  a  plant  the  third  year,  the  total  area  occupied 
by  them  would  amount  to  309  acres.  Fortunately,  for  many 
reasons,  no  weed  is  ever  so  successful.  But  the  illustration 
points  out  clearly  the  immense  possibilities  weeds  have  for 
multiplying  their  kind. 

Another  important  contribution  to  the  success  of  weeds  is 
the  means  they  have  for  the  dispersal  of  their  seeds.  The 
common  weeds  not  only  produce  seeds  in  great  numbers, 
but  many  of  them  have  very  effective  ways  of  scattering 
them  about.  When  the  seeds  are  light  and  provided  with 
some  means  for  keeping  them  suspended,  like  the  seeds  of 
the  thistle  or  dandelion,  they  may  be  scattered  by  the  wind. 
Or  the  whole  plant  may  be  broken  off  and  driven  by  the  wind 
from  place  to  place,  scattering  seeds  wherever  it  goes,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  tumble  weed.  Some  weeds  have  seeds  pro- 
vided with  barbs  which  are  easily  caught  in  the  hair  or  wool 
of  animals,  and  are  thus  carried  about  from  place  to  place, 
as  seeds  of  the  burdock,  cocklebur,  Spanish  needle,  sticktight, 


WEEDS  177 

beggar  ticks,  etc.  Some  seeds  enclosed  in  the  pulp  of  fruit 
are  eaten  and  dispersed  by  birds.  Examples  of  such  plants 
are  the  poison  ivy,  and  pokeberry  and  some  of  the  night- 
shades, such  as  the  ground  cherry.  Some  weeds  produce  seeds 
that  are  light  and  almost  impervious  to  water.  During  rains 
these  seeds  are  carried  about  by  the  water  and  left  at  the 
edges  of  streams  or  on  flooded  land  after  the  water  has  sub- 
sided. Some  weed  seeds,  because  of  a  similarity  in  size,  are 
difficult  to  separate  from  the  seeds  of  cultivated  plants  such 
as  clover,  timothy,  etc.,  when  they  are  threshed.  For  this 
reason  the  weed  seeds  may  be  planted  along  with  the  seeds 
of  the  crop  to  be  produced. 

Means  of  control  of  weeds.  —  There  seems  to  be  no  practi- 
cal way  of  entirely  controlling  weeds,  but  their  effect  on 
crops  may  be  considerably  reduced. 

First  in  importance  is  clean  culture.  This  means  killing 
the  weed  seedlings  as  fast  as  they  appear  during  the  growing 
season.  It  is  possible  to  do  this  when  some  cultivated  crop, 
such  as  corn  or  potatoes,  is  produced.  In  discussing  con- 
servation of  soil  moisture,  much  emphasis  was  placed  upon 
the  need  of  frequent  cultivation  so  as  to  maintain  a  good 
mulch.  Indeed,  recent  experiments  in  Nebraska,  Illinois, 
Ohio,  Minnesota,  Michigan,  and  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  seem  to  indicate  that  keeping  the  soil  free  from 
weeds  is  even  more  important  in  conserving  moisture  than 
using  soil  mulch.  In  farm  practice  keeping  down  weeds  and 
making  a  soil  mulch  are  usually  done  by  the  same  operation. 
In  an  ordinary  season  when  the  rainfall  is  well  distributed 
and  not  excessive,  maintaining  a  good  mulch  will,  at  the 
same  time,  effectively  control  the  weeds.  In  rainy  seasons 
especial  attention  must  be  given  to  the  removal  of  weeds. 
Uncultivated  crops,  such  as  wheat,  should  be  grown  in  short 


178  PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM  PRACTICE 

rotation  with  cultivated  crops.  For  example,  wheat  follow- 
ing corn  which  has  been  kept  free  from  weeds  will  be 
less  injured  by  weeds  than  if  following  some  uncultivated 
crop. 

Other  means  of  control  that  may  be  effective  are  heavy 
fertilizing  to  induce  a  vigorous  growth  of  farm  plants  so  that 
they  may  compete  successfully  with  weeds;  the  use  of  animals 
such  as  sheep  and  hogs  for  control,  the  latter  being  especially 
useful  in  destroying  bindweed;  pasturing  to  reduce  the  growth 
of  tall  weeds  thus  permitting  the  development  of  pasture 
grasses;  spraying  with  chemicals  such  as  iron  sulfate  for 
wild  mustard  and  wild  onion. 

It  is  also  quite  important  that  the  seed  of  such  crops  as 
clover,  timothy  and  wheat  be  free  from  weed  seeds.  All 
small  seed  used  on  the  farm  should  be  carefully  examined 
for  weed  seeds.  The  purchase  of  seed  badly  mixed  with 
weed  seeds  should  be  avoided. 

When  seed  is  produced  on  the  farm  it  should  be  screened, 
several  times  if  necessary,  to  remove  the  weed  seeds.  Many 
of  our  most  troublesome  weeds  have  become  established  on 
farms  by  the  use  of  impure  seed.  For  instance,  the  narrow 
leaf  plantain  was  seldom  seen  in  fields  a  few  years  ago,  but 
becoming  mixed  with  seed  used  on  farms,  it  has  grown  to  be 
a  common  pest. 

All  of  our  common  weeds  that  are  difficult  to  eradicate 
should  be  so  well  known  that  they  may  easily  be  recognized 
at  any  stage  of  their  growth,  and  measures  should  be  taken 
to  destroy  them.  It  is  especially  important  to  keep  them 
from  producing  seed. 

In  most  states  the  desirability  of  controlling  weeds  is 
recognized,  and  laws  providing  for  their  destruction  on  road- 
sides and  in  uncultivated  areas  are  enacted.  Because  of  the 


WEEDS  179 

ease  with  which  weed  seeds  are  carried  from  one  farm  to 
another  some  protection  should  be  given  to  the  careful  farmer, 
but  there  is  a  great  difficulty  in  enforcing  laws.  If  all  the 
farmers  in  a  community  would  cooperate  to  exterminate 
weeds  by  using  every  means  of  control  at  their  disposal,  weeds 
would  interfere  much  less  with  crop  production. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
INSECTS 

The  relation  of  farm  practice  to  insect  control.  —  It  is  a 
well  recognized  principle  of  field-crop  pest  control  that  there 
is  a  definite  relation  between  farm  practice  and  insect  control, 
and  that  in  many  cases  good  farm  practices  alone  are  sufficient 
to  overcome  insect  troubles.  A  recognition  of  the  importance 
of  insects,  and  a  knowledge  of  their  habits  and  life  history 
and  of  certain  relations  existing  between  insects  and  their 
plant  hosts  will  enable  the  farmer  to  plan  intelligently  his 
farm  practices  so  as  to  reduce  his  insect  problems  to  a 
minimum. 

Insects  both  useful  and  harmful.  —  Not  all  insects  are 
harmful.  For  instance,  the  bumble  bee  is  essential  to  the 
profitable  production,  of  red  clover  seed  and  other  insects 
are  similarly  useful  in  pollenizing  certain  plants.  Other 
insects,  such  as  the  honey  bee  and  the  silkworm,  are  useful 
because  of  some  product  they  make.  Others  are  beneficial 
because  of  their  destruction  of  insects  that  are  harmful.  The 
lady  beetle,  syrphus  fly,  lace  wing  fly,  and  many  kinds  of 
parasitic  insects  are  examples  of  this  group  of  insects.  But 
there  are  many  kinds  of  insects  which  are  injurious  because 
they  interfere  with  crop  production. 

Extent  of  harmful  insects. —  A  little  observation  during 
the  growing  season  will  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  there 
are  more  kinds  of  harmful  insects  than  useful  ones.  Each 
kind  of  plant  will  be  found  to  be  subject  to  injury  by  some 
kind  of  an  insect,  and  many  plants  by  many  kinds.  Among 
the  plants,  for  example,  which  have  special  insect  pests  are 

180 


INSECTS  181 

the  potato  —  injured  by  the  potato  beetle;  the  cabbage 
plant  —  injured  by  the  cabbage  worm;  the  apple  —  coddling 
moth;  wheat  —  Hessian  fly;  corn  — chinch  bug;  cottonboll- 
weevil. 

Amount  of  injury  by  insects.  —  The  total  loss  to  agri- 
culture in  the  United  States,  occasioned  by  insects,  is 
enormous,  amounting,  according  to  good  authority,  at  least 
to  ten  per  cent  of  the  total  production.  Thus  in  1915,  the 
wheat  crop  which  amounted  to  about  $1,000, 000,000  might 
have  been  worth  $100,000,000  more  had  it  not  been  reduced 
by  insect  injuries. 

The  constant  danger  of  damage  by  insects  to  growing 
crops  is  well  illustrated  by  a  reference  to  corn.  "  This  crop 
may  suffer  from  insect  injuries  from  the  time  the  seed  is 
put  into  the  ground  until  the  meal  is  ready  to  use.  The 
kernels  just  planted  may  be  destroyed  by  wire  worms,  the 
young  plants  may  die  because  their  roots  are  eaten  by  wire 
worms  or  white  grubs,  or  the  juices  of  the  roots  may  be 
sucked  up  by  corn-root  lice.  If  the  plants  escape  destruction 
by  these  enemies,  the  soft  stems  may  be  injured  by  the  burrow- 
ing of  stalk  borers,  their  leaves  and  stems  pierced  by  bill 
bugs,  or  the  whole  plant  cut  off  by  cut  worms.  Should  they 
still  survive,  the  young  leaves  may  be  eaten  by  corn  worms 
which  may  later  attack  the  developing  grains  in  the  ears. 
Entire  plants  may  be  seriously  injured,  in  May  or  June,  by 
army  worms,  or  a  month  later  by  chinch  bugs  as  they  come 
in  from  adjacent  wheat  and  oat  fields.  When  nearly  mature, 
plants  may  fall  over  because  the  larger  roots  have  been  eaten 
by  corn-root  worms  or  cut  in  two  by  white  grubs,  or  because 
the  brace  roots  have  been  weakened  by  chinch  bugs  that 
have  sucked  away  the  sap.  After  the  corn  has  been  harvested 
and  put  into  the  crib,  the  kernels  of  the  ears  may  be  made 


182  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

worthless  by  the  larvae  of  grain  moths.  Finally,  after  coming 
from  the  mill,  the  meal  may  be  made  unwholesome  by  meal 
worms."  Of  course,  it  must  be  understood  that  not  all  of 
these  injuries  are  likely  to  occur  in  any  one  season  or  to  all 
the  plants,  but  some  of  them  are  certain  to  occur. 

Why  insects  are  able  to  cause  so  much  damage  to  crops.  - 
Insects  are  generally  small  and  may  not  be  readily  noticed  ex- 
cept when  they  occur  in  great  numbers.   One  may  wonder  why 
such  small  animals  are  able  to  interfere  so  greatly  with  farm 
production. 

There  are  at  least  four  great  facts  of  insect  life  that  help 
to  answer  this  question.  In  the  first  place,  there  are  many 
kinds  of  insects;  second,  they  reproduce  very  rapidly;  third, 
they  grow  rapidly;  fourth,  they  are  equipped  to  meet  adverse 
conditions. 

Kinds  of  insects.  —  The  number  of  kinds  of  insects  ex- 
ceeds the  kinds  of  all  other  animals  put  together.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  fully  400,000  kinds  of  insects  are  now  known, 
while  perhaps  as  many  more  have  not  been  studied  and 
described.  In  the  reference  just  made  to  corn  twelve  kinds 
are  mentioned.  According  to  good  authority  as  many  as 
two  hundred  different  kinds  of  insects  may,  at  one  time  or 
another,  attack  and  injure  the  corn  plant.  One  hundred  and 
twenty-six  kinds  of  insects  are  known  to  injure  the  apple 
tree  and  more  than  five  hundred,  the  oak  tree. 

Rapid  reproduction  of  insects.  —  Not  only  are  there  many 
kinds  of  insects  but  many  of  the  same  kind.  Enormous 
numbers  of  our  common,  destructive  insects  are  produced 
each  year.  A  little  figuring  will  make  clear  the  great  repro- 
ductive possibilities  of  insects.  If  an  insect  should  produce 
two  hundred  eggs,  and  half  this  number  should  develop  into 
adults  which,  in  turn,  should  produce  the  same  number  of 


INSECTS  183 

eggs  per  individual,  there  would  be  one  hundred  times  two 
hundred,  or  20,000  eggs;  10,000  of  these  might  be  females 
to  begin  the  second  generation.  If  these  females  should 
each  deposit  two  hundred  eggs,  there  would  be  2,000,000  eggs, 
1,000,000  of  which  might  be  egg-laying  adults  to  begin  the 
third  generation,  etc. 

It  has  been  found  that  a  new  generation  of  potato  beetles 
occurs  once  each  fifty  days  during  the  growing  season.  The 
possible  descendants  of  one  pair  of  potato  beetles  have  been 
estimated  at  60,000,000  for  one  season.  Fortunately  no 
kind  of  insect  ever  reaches  its  possibilities  of  reproduction. 
If  it  did,  the  world  would  soon  be  so  filled  with  insects  that 
there  would  be  no  room  for  other  life.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
owing  to  various  difficulties  such  as  scarcity  of  food,  diseases, 
insect  parasites,  birds,  etc.,  the  number  of  insects  that  get 
a  chance  to  live  is  very  small  compared  with  the  number 
that  might  develop  if  all  conditions  were  favorable. 

Growth  of  insects.  —  Rapidity  of  growth  is  perhaps  the 
most  important  fact  to  be  considered  in  relation  to  the  damage 
done  to  crops  by  insects.  For  instance,  some  caterpillars 
which  reach  their  growth  in  thirty  days  increase  in  size 
10,000  times.  At  this  rate,  an  infant  weighing  eight  pounds 
would  weigh  as  a  full  grown  man  80,000  pounds,  or  forty  tons. 

In  order  to  make  such  a  rapid  growth,  insects  must  eat 
large  quantities  of  food.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  a  cater- 
pillar to  eat  twice  its  weight  in  leaves  in  one  day;  often  the 
rate  of  eating  is  greater  than  this.  For  example,  one  of  our 
large  caterpillars  consumed  in  fifty-six  days  one  hundred 
and  twenty  oak  leaves,  amounting  to  three-fourths  of  a  pound. 

Insects  are  able  to  meet  adverse  conditions.  —  Another 
important  fact  of  insect  life  is  that  they  usually  have  a  way 
of  meeting  adverse  conditions.  This  bears  on  the  question 


1 84 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


of  how  insects  interfere  so  much  with  farm  production, 
though  not  so  directly  as  those  facts  already  considered.  In 
general,  their  rapid  growth  and  reproduction  are  means  for 

equipping  them  to  meet  un- 
favorable conditions.  For  ex- 
ample, where  a  large  number 
of  a  certain  kind  of  insect  is 
produced,  and  conditions  be- 
come unfavorable,  more  of 
them  will  survive  than  if  the 
number  produced  were  small. 
Rapid  growth  is.  also  an  ad- 
vantage. It  enables  insects 
to  make  use  of  a  food  supply 
while  it  is  plentiful,  and  thus 
rapidly  pass  into  a  stage  dur- 
ing which  little  or  no  food  is 
needed.  For  example,  the 
young  of  the  potato  beetle 
eat  much  and  grow  rapidly 
for  a  few  weeks,  then  pass 
into  a  resting  stage,  called 
pupa,  in  which  they  require 


Life  history  of  the  Hessian  Fly. 

a.   Egg.        b.  Larva. 

c.  Flax  seed  or  pupa  case. 

d.  Pupa.        e.  Adult  male. 
/.  Adult  female. 

g.  Flaxseed  on  wheat  plant. 

h.  Fly  depositing  eggs  on  blade  of 
wheat  plant. 

(Hanman:  Missouri  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station.) 


no  food. 

In  temperate  climates,  the 
most  serious  adverse  condition 
which  insects  must  meet  is 
the  cold  of  winter;  but  they 


meet  this  difficulty  so  success- 
fully that  when  spring  comes  there  is  enough  to  begin  a  new 
season.  Insects  pass  the  winter  in  various  ways;  some,  like 
grasshoppers,  survive  in  the  egg  stage;  others  like  the  cod- 


INSECTS 


ling  moth,  survive  as  larvae;  those  like  the  cabbage  butter- 
fly, as  pupae;  those  like  the  potato  beetle,  as  adults;  others, 
like  the  corn-root  aphids,  survive  by  some  special  means. 

Insect  life  and  insect  control.  —  Having  considered  why 
insects  are  able  to  cause  so  much  damage  to  crops,  we 
need  now  to  consider  some 
facts  of  insect  life  which  may 
help  us  to  control  this  dam- 
age. Two  facts  are  espe- 
cially important :  first,  insects 
pass  through  definite  stages 
of  development;  second,  the 
way  in  which  insects  get 
food.  Since  both  have  a 
practical  bearing  upon  insect 
control  it  will  be  of  interest 
to  notice  each  in  detail,  and 
to  illustrate  the  application 
of  this  knowledge. 

Life  history  of  insects.  - 
Most  insects  as  the  cabbage 
butterfly,    housefly,    May 


Life  history  of  May  Beetle, 
a.  Adult.        b.   Egg. 
c.  Larva.        d.   Pupa. 
e.   Plant  showing  grub   destroying 


beetle,  etc.,  pass  through  four 

stages  in  their  life-history-      roots.   pupa  in  burrow>    (Hanman: 

Missouri     Agricultural     Experiment 
Station.) 


that  is,  from  egg  to  adult. 
The  first  stage  is  the  egg; 
second,  larva  or  active  stage;  third,  pupa  or  resting  stage; 
fourth,  adult  or  mature  stage.  Some  insects,  like  the  grass- 
hopper, make  a  short  cut  from  egg  to  adult,  omitting  the 
larval  and  pupal  stages.  The  young  of  such  insects  are 
much  like  the  adult  except  in  size  and  development  of  parts, 
particularly  the  wings.  They  are  called  nymphs. 


1 86  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

It  is  important  to  know  the  life  history  of  our  common 
insects  and  also  when  and  where  to  look  for  each  stage,  be- 
cause such  knowledge  is  needed  for  insect  control.  If  the 
various  stages  in  the  life  history  of  an  insect  are  recognized, 
some  one  stage  is  likely  to  be  found  weaker  or  more  easily 
reached  than  others.  This  should  indicate  what  to  do  in 
order  to  prevent  or  reduce  the  injuries  caused  by  this  insect. 
For  example,  the  codling  moth  lays  its  eggs  on  the  small 
apples  about  the  time  the  blossoms  fall  in  the  spring.  Soon 
the  egg  hatches,  and  the  larva,  a  little  worm,  eats  its 
way  into  the  young  apple.  Later,  after  the  worm  and  the 
apple  have  increased  in  size,  the  apple  falls  to  the  ground. 
Then  the  worm  crawls  out  of  the  apple  and  finally  goes  up 
the  trunk  of  the  tree  to  hide  beneath  some  scale  of  bark. 
Here  it  changes  into  the  pupa  and  later  into  a  moth,  ready 
to  start  a  second  generation.  There  are  two  points  in  this 
life  history  that  suggest  a  means  of  control.  First,  the  hatch- 
ing period;  if  a  poisonous  spray  is  applied  at  this  time  the 
young  larva  is  very  likely  to  be  poisoned  as  it  eats  its  way 
into  the  young  apple;  second,  the  pupa-forming  period,  in 
mid-summer.  At  this  time  the  worms  crawl  up  the  lower 
part  of  the  tree  trunk  to  find  a  shelter  beneath  the  bark 
scales.  If  these  scales  are  scraped  off  and  a  band  of  burlap 
is  tied  about  the  tree  trunk  two  or  three  feet  from  the  ground, 
the  worms  hunting  for  shelter  will  crawl  beneath  the  burlap 
band.  After  they  have  collected  under  the  band  and  formed 
pupae,  it  may  be  removed  and  the  pupae  destroyed. 

How  insects  secure  food.  —  It  is  important  to  know  whether 
a  particular  kind  of  insect  gets  its  food  by  biting  or  by  suck- 
ing. If  it  gets  its  food  by  biting,  the  application  of  some 
poison  in  form  of  a  spray  will  be  effective  for  control; 
naturally  the  insect  will  eat  some  of  the  poison  when  eating 


INSECTS  187 

the  poisoned  plant  tissue.  If  the  insect  gets  its  food  by  suck- 
ing, spraying  with  a  poison  will  not  be  successful.  The 
sucking  tube  of  the  insect  by  means  of  which  it  gets  its  food 
will  penetrate  the  surface  of  the  plant,  and  little  or  no  poison 
will  be  taken  into  the  body.  Consequently  other  measures 
must  be  taken  to  destroy  such  insects.  If  a  spray  mixture 
is  used,  it  must  be  one  that  will  cor- 
rode or  otherwise  injure  the  bodies 
of  the  insects,  such  as  the  lime-sulfur 
mixture  so  commonly  used  to  destroy 
scale  insects;  or  one  that  will  cover 
their  bodies  in  such  a  way  as  to  affect 
the  breathing  organs,  such  as  the 
kerosene  emulsion  often  used  to  de-  gan  jose  gcaie  Several 

Stroy  plant  lice.  adult    insects   considerably 

c-      -,  .  T  i  magnified  to   show  details 

Sucking  insects,  such  as  scale  in-     of  appearance> 
sects,    may    also    be    destroyed    by 

another  method.  The  infected  plant  may  be  covered  with 
a  tent,  and  a  poisonous  gas,  such  as  hydrocyanic  acid  gas, 
generated  beneath  it.  The  gas  enters  the  breathing  pores 
of  the  insects  and  they  soon  die. 

What  a  farmer  should  know  about  insects.  —  The  four 
great  facts  —  many  kinds  of  insects,  rapid  reproduction, 
rapid  growth,  and  a  successful  means  of  meeting  adverse 
conditions  —  should  be  recognized  by  the  farmer  in  order 
that  he  may  be  on  his  guard  and  take  measures  for  the  control 
of  insects. 

The  farmer  should  be  familiar  with  the  life  histories  of 
the  most  common  injurious  insects.  At  least  he  should  know 
that  caterpillars  are  the  larvae  of  moths  and  butterflies, 
grubs  the  larvae  of  beetles,  maggots  the  larvae  of  flies,  that 
young  grasshoppers  resemble  the  adult  forms  except  in  size 


1 88  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

and  development.  He  should  be  able  to  recognize  the  prin- 
cipal insects  and  the  injuries  caused  by  them  to  which  his 
crops  are  liable.  He  should  realize  the  importance  of  insect 
control  to  profitable  farming.  He  should  know  the  effects 
of  rotations,  arrangement  of  crops,  time  of  planting,  time 
of  plowing,  and  the  like  on  the  important  crop  pests;  the 
relation  of  moisture,  climatic  conditions,  fertility,  etc.,  to 
insect  damage;  the  great  importance  of  timeliness  in  recogniz- 
ing insect  troubles,  and  in  taking  measures  for  their  control; 
and  especially  should  he  understand  the  value  of  calling 
upon  his  agricultural  experiment  station  for  assistance  if 
the  trouble  is  unknown  to  him  or  if  he  is  not  thoroughly 
familiar  with  he  best  methods  of  procedure. 

What  the  farmer  can  do  to  control  insect  injuries.  —  The 
control  of  insects  is  an  important  and  difficult  task  for  the 
farmer,  but  there  are  many  things  he  can  do  toward  this 
control.  It  is  to  his  advantage  to  know  such  facts  of  insect 
life  as  have  already  been  set  forth  in  this  chapter.  He  should 
not  only  be  able  to  recognize  the  various  kinds  of  common 
insects  but  should  have  an  acquaintance  with  their  life- 
histories  and  habits.  For  example,  if  he  knows  by  sight  the 
moths  of  the  army  worm,  and  happens  to  notice  that  they 
are  unusually  plentiful  in  the  spring,  he  will  be  prepared  to 
see  large  numbers  of  the  young  later  and  perhaps  be  able  to 
destroy  them  near  their  hatching  grounds  before  they  do 
much  damage. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  methods  for  controlling 
insect  injuries: 

Crop  rotation.  —  The  kind  of  rotation  practiced  may 
affect  the  kind  and  amount  of  insect  injury  to  crops  in  the 
rotation.  For  example,  as  a  result  of  the  change  from  sod 
(grass)  to  corn,  some  of  the  insects,  such  as  the  white 


INSECTS  189 

grub,  wire  worm,  and  cut  worm,  which  infest  sod  land  may 
remain  to  injure  the  corn.  Grass  furnishes  so  much  food 
that  these  insects  are  not  usually  noticed  when  the  field  is 
in  grass,  but  they  are  numerous  enough  when  the  corn  plants 
appear  to  do  great  damage  to  corn.  This  injury  may  be 
greatly  reduced  if  measures  are  taken  to  get  rid  of  the  insects 
before  planting  the  corn,  that  is,  by  early  spring  plowing 
and  late  planting.  Another  method  would  be  to  provide 
a  rotation  which  would  avoid  using  crops  like  corn  to  follow 
grass.  Thus  oats,  clover,  and  corn  would  be  a  better  ro- 
tation than  oats,  grass  and  corn. 

Arrangement  of  crops  on  the  farm.  —  The  arrangement  of 
crops  in  the  fields  has  an  effect  on  the  control  of  destructive 
insects.  Crops  having  the  same  insect  enemies  should  not 
be  planted  side  by  side,  for  certain  insects  are  likely  to  migrate 
from  one  crop  to  another.  For  example,  a  field  of  corn  beside 
a  field  of  grass  might  be  injured  by  the  army  worms  which 
come  from  the  grass;  but  if  the  corn  were  next  to  a  wheat 
field  it  would  escape  injury  from  these  insects,  for  army  worms 
are  rarely  found  among  wheat  plants.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  there  were  danger  of  injury  from  chinch  bugs,  corn  growing 
next  to  wheat  would  be  especially  liable  to  damage  by  those 
insects,  if  they  were  numerous  in  the  wheat. 

Neither  should  crops  having  the  same  insect  enemies 
succeed  each  other,  for  insects  injurious  to  one  crop  are 
likely  to  live  over  to  do  damage  to  the  succeeding  crop; 
corn  following  grass,  mentioned  in  a  preceding  paragraph, 
is  an  example.  Nor  should  the  same  crop  continue  on  the 
same  ground  two  or  more  seasons  in  succession;  the  well- 
known  occurrence  of  numerous  white  grubs  and  wire  worms 
in  old  meadows  and  pastures,  and  of  corn-root  aphides  and 
corn- root  worms  in  fields  where  corn  is  grown  for  several 
years  in  succession  are  examples. 


I  go  PRINCIPLES   OF  FARM   PRACTICE 

Timing  farm  operations.  —  The  timing  of  work  in  the 
field  has  an  effect  on  insect  control.  The  value  of  timing 
farm  operations  is  well  illustrated  by  the  success  of  measures 
that  are  practiced  to  protect  wheat  from  injury  by  the  Hessian 
fly.  If  a  field  in  which  the  Hessian  fly  has  been  troublesome 
is  to  be  used  for  wheat  the  following  year,  plowing  and  rolling 
the  ground  in  summer  and  late  sowing  will  usually  save  the 
next  crop  from  much  damage  by  this  insect.  Plowing  and 
rolling  destroy  most  of  the  insects,  and  the  preparation  for 
late  sowing  destroys  the  eggs  of  the  flies  that  have  escaped 
destruction  in  the  first  operation.  A  similar  practice  is 
followed  in  the  control  of  the  wheat  jointworm.  Where 
spring  wheat  is  to  be  protected,  burning  the  stubble  and 
plowing  in  the  fall,  and  early  spring  sowing  are  regarded 
as  efficient  measures.  It  must  be  understood  that  the  Hessian 
fly  and  the  jointworm  are  not  always  controlled  by  these 
methods.  They  should  be  employed,  however,  where  rota- 
tion of  crops  which  is  a  more  effective  means  of  control  can 
not  be  followed. 

Relation  of  moisture  and  other  climatic  conditions  to 
insects.  —  Many  insects  are  greatly  influenced  by  climatic 
conditions,  especially  by  moisture.  This  fact  is  worthy  of 
consideration  in  insect  control,  for  if  conditions  are  favorable 
for  their  growth  and  development  some  measures  for  control 
may  be  necessary.  For  example,  the  greatest  damage  from 
the  chinch  bug  may  be  expected  during  a  hot,  dry  summer; 
and  from  the  Hessian  fly  during  a  warm,  moist  spring  or  fall. 

Soil  fertility  and  insect  control.  —  Keeping  the  soil  fertile 
is  a  good  practice  not  only  from  the  standpoint  of  crop  yield 
under  normal  conditions,  but  also  from  the  standpoint  of 
safeguarding  the  growing  crop  from  a  certain  amount  of  dam- 
age by  insects.  Vigorously  growing,  healthy  plants  are  less 


INSECTS  191 

likely  to  be  destroyed  by  certain  insects  than  those  that  are 
weak.  For  example,  wheat  plants  that  make  an  early,  vig- 
orous growth,  as  npon  richly  fertilized  land,  are  less  likely 
to  be  greatly  injured  by  the  jointworm  than  are  weak,  slow- 
growing  plants.  Mineral  fertilizers  and  soil  amendments 
such  as  kainit  and  lime  seem  to  have  a  direct  effect  upon  the 
control  of  certain  insects.  For  example,  insects  infesting  sod 
land  may  be  partially  controlled  by  heavy  applications  of 
kainit  and  lime.  This  treatment,  when  applied  in  the  spring, 
has  the  added  advantage  of  stimulating  the  growth  of  the 
grass. 

Community  cooperation.  Certain  insects  migrate  from 
one  farm  to  another  and  therefore  cooperation  among  the 
farmers  of  the  community  is  necessary  for  the  control  of 
them.  For  example,  wheat  should  not  be  sown  early  for 
pasture  or  volunteer  wheat  allowed  to  develop  in  wheat 
fields  when  the  Hessian  fly  is  bad.  Such  a  practice  is  likely 
to  injure  the  neighboring  farmer  who  is  making  an  effort  to 
save  his  next  crop  of  wheat  from  the  fly. 

Other  methods  of  control.  —  Clean  farming,  including 
clean  cultivation  and  the  destruction  of  weeds  and  rubbish, 
has  its  influence  in  keeping  insects  under  control.  Corn 
shocks  standing  over  winter  may  afford  means  of  hibernation 
for  chinch  bugs;  old  cabbage  stalks  and  leaves  may  furnish 
protection  for  the  pupae  of  the  cabbage  butterfly  and  the 
cabbage  maggot;  weeds  and  other  plants  along  fence  rows 
and  on  other  parts  of  the  farm  may  harbor  the  Hessian  fly, 
the  chinch  bug,  the  jointworm  and  many  other  insects. 

Some  varieties  of  plants  are  less  liable  to  insect  injuries 
than  others.  When  possible  such  varieties  should  be  used, 
provided  they  have  other  desirable  qualities.  The  phylloxera 
of  the  grape  vine,  a  plant. louse  injuring  the  roots  and  some- 


IQ2  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

times  the  leaves  of  this  plant,  will  not  do  much  if  any  damage 
to  some  varieties  of  the  grape.  A  rapidly  maturing  variety 
of  wheat  would  be  likely  to  sustain  less  damage  from  the 
jointworm  than  a  slowly  maturing  variety. 

Natural  enemies  of  insects.  —  Injurious  insects,  in  spite 
of  man's  effort  to  control  them,  would  soon  become  so  numer- 
ous as  to  make  agricultural  production  very  unprofitable  were 
it  not  for  their  natural  enemies.  These  enemies  are  bacterial 
and  fungal  diseases;  parasitic  insects;  birds;  and  mammals. 

Insect  diseases.  —  Insects  like  other  forms  of  life  are 
subject  to  disease,  and  when  they  have  become  diseased 
they  are  unable  to  cause  further  injury  to  growing  crops.  A 
few  examples  will  illustrate  insect  diseases.  A  germ  (bac- 
terial) disease  of  the  cabbage  worm  is  not  uncommon.  In 
the  course  of  the  disease  the  worm  ceases  to  eat  and  soon 
dies.  The  dead  remains  become  soft  and  dark  in  color,  and 
finally  decay  entirely.  In  late  autumn,  house  flies  may  be 
seen  attached  to  walls  or  window  panes  by  fine  threads  of  a 
mold-like  substance.  These  flies  have  been  attacked  by  a 
fungus.  A  similar  disease  sometimes  attacks  chinch  bugs, 
destroying  them  in  great  numbers. 

Parasitic  insects.  —  An  organism  living  on  the  body  of 
another  is  called  a  parasite.  The  organism  invaded  by  the 
parasite  is  known  as  the  host.  Nearly  all  insects  are  subject 
to  injury  by  parasitic  insects.  The  parasite  usually  lays  its 
eggs  on  the  body  of  the  host.  The  eggs  hatch  into  little 
grubs  which  enter  the  body  of  the  attacked  insect.  Here 
they  live  until  they  find  their  way  to  the  outside  and  form 
pupae.  For  example,  tomato  worms  are  often  seen  covered 
with  the  white  oblong  cocoons  of  parasites  that  have  been 
living  inside  the  worms.  At  this  stage  the  worm  is  either 
dead  or  about  ready  to  die. 


INSECTS  193 

Insects  which  are  very  numerous  one  season  may  be  scarcely 
noticed  the  following  season.  It  is  probable  that  at  the  end 
of  the  first  season 'most  of  them  were  attacked  and  killed  by 
parasites.  Consequently  but  few  were  left  to  start  new 
generations  the  second  year. 

Birds.  —  Birds  have  been  called  "  the  farmer's  friends," 
because  they  greatly  aid  him  in  destroying  insects  that  injure 
his  crops.  The  importance  of  attracting  birds  to  the  farm 
and  encouraging  them  to  live  there  is  so  great  that  the  follow- 
ing chapter  will  be  devoted  to  this  subject. 

Mammals.  —  The  mole  and  skunk  are  common  mammals 
that  are  useful  in  destroying  insects,  although  at  times  they 
may  become  undesirable.  The  mole  feeds  upon  worms,  insect 
larvae  such  as  wireworms  and  white  grubs,  and  insects  that 
live  in  the  ground.  The  skunk  eats  a  great  variety  of  insects 
such  as  grasshoppers,  crickets,  white  grubs,  tobacco  and 
tomato  worms,  and  potato  beetles.  It  also  feeds  upon  field 
mice  and  other  small  rodents. 

Learning  more  about  insects.  —  Nothing  can  take  the 
place  of  actually  knowing  insects,  not  from  books,  but  by 
watching  what  they  do,  how  they  grow,  where  they  live, 
when  and  where  they  lay  their  eggs  and  transform  into  the 
different  stages  of  their  development. 

Such  knowledge  should  grow  by  continued  observation 
from  year  to  year,  with  such  assistance  as  may  be  obtained 
from  bulletins  and  circulars,  from  state  agricultural  experi- 
ment stations  and  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
and  from  some  good  reference  books  on  injurious  insects. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
BIRDS  AS  RELATED   TO  AGRICULTURE 

BIRDS  rely  largely  upon  weed  seeds  and  insects  for  their 
food.  For  this  reason  they  are  of  inestimable  value  in  help- 
ing to  control  weeds  and  in  holding  insects  in  check.  The 
good  they  do  is  not  sufficiently  appreciated.  It  will  there- 
fore be  worth  while  to  consider  some  of  the  facts  of  bird  life 
as  related  to  agriculture,  showing  how  birds  protect  farm 
plants  from  insect  injuries  and  from  weeds  to  a  certain  extent. 

Food  of  adult  birds.  —  Most  of  our  common  birds  are 
either  seed  eaters  or  insect  eaters.  In  certain  seasons  they 
may  eat  fruit,  but  the  damage  done  to  cultivated  fruits  by 
birds  is  generally  offset  by  the  good  they  do  in  other  ways. 

Birds  as  destroyers  of  weed  seeds.  —  We  have  seen  that 
one  reason  why  weeds  are  able  to  succeed  so  well  in  establish- 
ing themselves  is  that  they  produce  great  quantities  of  seeds. 
When  weed  seeds  have  been  produced  and  scattered,  little 
can  be  done  toward  control  until  they  have  developed  into 
seedlings  the  following  season.  It  is  especially  difficult  to 
destroy  seeds  which  have  fallen  on  the  ground.  A  large 
amount  of  weed  seeds  is  eaten  by  birds.  The  number  of 
seeds  found  in  the  stomach  and  crop  of  a  bird,  representing 
a  single  feeding  period,  gives  some  idea  of  the  service  rendered 
in  the  destruction  of  weed  seeds.  For  example,  a  red- winged 
blackbird  was  found  to  have  eaten  in  one  feeding  period 
1800  seeds  of  ragweed;  a  bob  white,  5000  seeds  of  pigeon 
grass;  and  a  mourning  dove,  9200  seeds  of  pigeon  grass. 

194 


BIRDS   AS   RELATED   TO  AGRICULTURE  195 

Among  the  seed-eating  birds  are  sparrows,  finches,  gros- 
beaks, towhees,  meadowlarks,  and  quail. 

Birds  as  destroyers  of  insects.  —  One  reason  birds  are  able 
to  destroy  enormous  numbers  of  insects  is  due  to  their  ability 
to  get  quickly  to  places  where  insects  are  numerous.  It 
may  be  noticed  that  an  outbreak  of  grasshoppers  is  likely  to 
be  followed  by  an  increase  of  birds  in  that  locality.  After  the 
grasshoppers  have  been  destroyed  the  birds  pass  on  to  some 
other  place  where  insect  food  is  more  abundant.  In  this  way 
insects  are  often  kept  in  check  and  prevented  from  doing 
much  damage. 

The  number  of  insects  that  a  single  adult  bird  will  eat 
at  one  meal  is  very  great,  as  the  following  examples  will 
show.  A  yellow-billed  cuckoo  is  known  to  have  eaten  250 
tent  caterpillars;  a  nighthawk,  500  mosquitoes;  another, 
320  grasshoppers;  a  cedar  waxwing,  200  canker  worms;  and 
a  flicker,  28  large  grubs.  A  scarlet  tanager  was  found  to 
have  eaten  630  gypsy  moth  caterpillars  in  18  minutes,  and 
a  warbler  3500  plant  lice  in  40  minutes.  Among  the  birds 
that  are  largely  insect  eaters  are  the  warblers,  threshers,  orioles, 
flycatchers,  swallows,  woodpeckers,  thrushes,  nuthatches, 
wrens,  kinglets,  vireos,  creepers,  titmice,  and  chickadees. 

Birds  as  destroyers  of  rodents  and  other  mammals.  —  Field 
mice,  deer  mice,  rats,  weasels,  rabbits,  and  some  other  mam- 
mals are  often  very  destructive  of  farm  plants  and  farm 
products.  With  the  exception  of  the  rabbit  whose  numbers 
are  usually  kept  down  by  hunters,  the  number  of  these  harmful 
mammals  is  controlled  largely  by  hawks  and  owls,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  by  crows. 

The  service  rendered  by  many  kinds  of  hawks  and  owls  is 
not  sufficiently  understood  and  appreciated.  Only  two  com- 
mon species  of  hawks,  Cooper's  hawk  and  the  sharp-shinned 


196  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

hawk,  are  known  to  be  harmful.  These  destroy  other  birds, 
and  when  occasion  offers,  poultry.  Such  hawks  as  the  red- 
tailed  and  red-shouldered  hawks,  often  called  hen  or  chicken 
hawks,  feed  largely  upon  insects  and  rodents  such  as  field 
mice.  For  example,  an  examination  of  the  contents  of  the 
stomachs  of  twelve  red-shouldered  hawks  showed  that  102 
mice  had  been  eaten;  while  only  three  of  220  stomachs 
examined  contained  remains  of  poultry.  Occasionally  an 
individual  hawk  may  get  the  poultry-eating  habit.  Such  an 
individual  should  receive  the  same  consideration  as  a  sheep- 
killing  dog.  As  a  good  protection  against  a  hawk  getting  a 
taste  for  poultry,  purple  martins  may  be  induced  by  the 
presence  of  nesting  boxes  to  guard  the  poultry  yard.  The 
purple  martin  does  not  like  the  hawk  and  generally  succeeds 
in  driving  him  away.  The  presence  of  nesting  kingbirds 
serves  the  same  purpose. 

All  of  our  common  owls  seem  to  be  beneficial,  destroying 
enormous  numbers  of  insects  and  harmful  mammals.  So 
much  cannot  be  said  of  the  crow.  While  it  destroys  many 
mice  and  other  rodents  it  also  destroys  young  birds,  sometimes 
poultry,  and  of  ten  pulls  up  corn  that  is  germinating  in  the  fields. 

Food  of  young  birds.  —  Most  of  our  common  birds,  whether 
seed-eating  or  insect-eating,  feed  their  young  almost  ex- 
clusively on  insects.  Young  birds  grow  rapidly  and  require 
an  abundance  of  food.  Many  young  birds  digest  their  food 
in  less  than  two  hours.  A  young  bird  will  often  consume 
food  equal  to  more  than  one-half  its  weight  in  one  day.  Three 
young  chipping  sparrows  were  kept  under  observation  for 
an  entire  day  and  were  seen  to  receive  food  from  their  parents 
187  times;  a  family  of  young  martins,  312  times;  and  a 
family  of  wrens,  600  times. 

It  happens  that  the  first  brood  of  young  birds  is  produced 


BIRDS  AS  RELATED  TO  AGRICULTURE  197 

in  the  spring  when  insects  are  beginning  to  appear.  This  is. 
a  time  when  the  destruction  of  insects  gives  the  greatest 
protection  to  crops.  Many  adult  insects  are  killed  before 
they  lay  eggs,  thus  preventing  in  advance  the  damage  a  new 
generation  might  do.  Again,  countless  young  caterpillars 
and  other  insect  larvae  are  destroyed  before  they  are  large 
enough  to  do  much  injury. 

Bird  population.  —  The  effect  of  the  decrease  in  the  bird 
population  in  any  agricultural  region  is  shown  almost  im- 
mediately by  the  rapid  increase  of  insects.  On  the  other 
hand,  injuries  threatened  by  large  numbers  of  insects  are 
soon  checked  by  the  appearance  of  birds. 

The  importance  of  maintaining  the  bird  population  has 
been  recognized  in  most  states  by  laws  protecting  song  birds 
and  their  nests.  State  laws  have  been  greatly  strengthened 
lately  by  national  laws,  both  of  the  United  States  and  of 
Canada,  which  are  intended  to  protect  birds  during  their 
migration  periods. 

A  bird  census  or  survey  which  was  conducted  in  1914  and 
again  in  1915,  under  the  direction  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  indicates  that  the  kinds  of  birds,  as  well  as 
individuals  of  each  kind,  are  less  numerous  on  farms  than 
they  should  be  for  adequate  protection  against  insects. 
These  surveys  show  approximately  an  average  of  one  pair  of 
birds  to  each  acre  of  farm  land,  an  average  much  too  low  for 
the  protection  of  crops.  The  facts  of  bird  life,  as  shown  by 
many  observers  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  point  to  a 
decrease  in  the  bird  population  ranging  from  ten  to  seventy- 
five  per  cent  in  thirty  states.  It  is  not  enough  merely  to 
protect  birds  from  wanton  slaughter.  Some  measures  need 
to  be  taken  to  increase  the  number  of  birds,  especially  on 
farms.  Among  the  things  which  encourage  the  presence  of 


ig8 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


birds  on  farms  are  trees  and  shrubs,  provisions  for  nesting 
and  control  of  bird  enemies. 

Trees  and  shrubs.  —  One  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  de- 
crease in  bird  life  on  farms  has  been  the  destruction  of  trees 
and  underbrush  and  the  clearing  of  waste  places,  all  of  which 
are  natural  bird  haunts. 

These  have  been,  for  the  most  part,  necessary  changes  in 
order   to   enlarge   the   area   of   cultivated 
lands.    But  with    the    addition    of    more 
cultivated  crops  subject  to  insect  injuries 
there  is  the  need  of  more  birds  for  pro- 
tecting these  crops.     On  many  farms  there 
are  hillsides  and   other   rough   land   that 
could   be   reforested.     It  is   desirable   to 
reclaim  such  regions  in  order  to  prevent 
loss  of  soil  by  erosion  and  to  make  them 
productive.    Affording  a  place  for  birds  to 
Bird  house  made  of    nest  an(j  to  rear  their  young  is   an   addi- 
hollow   limb   of  tree. 
(After  Forbush.)  tional  reason. 

Trees  and  shrubs  around  the  farm  home 
not  only  serve  to  beautify  the  home  surroundings  but  they 
encourage  the  presence  of  birds  of  many  kinds.  There  are 
several  native  trees  and  shrubs  bearing  wild  fruits  which 
furnish  food  for  birds  and,  in  this  way,  protect  the  culti- 
vated fruit  in  the  farm  orchards.  Birds  seem  generally  to 
prefer  wild  to  cultivated  fruits. 

The  following  wild  fruits  are  regarded  as  useful  in  afford- 
ing protection  for  cultivated  varieties:  for  cherries  —  red 
mulberry,  juneberry,  wild  red  cherry,  and  red-berried  elder; 
for  raspberries  and  blackberries  —  dewberry,  wild  goose- 
berry and  wild  blackberry;  for  apples  and  pears  —  crab- 
apple,  chokeberry  and  cockspur  thorn. 


BIRDS  AS  RELATED  TO  AGRICULTURE 


199 


Nesting  sites  and  food  for  birds.  —  In  addition  to  provid- 
ing trees  and  shrubs  as  nesting  sites  for  birds,  nesting  boxes 
placed  in  sheltered  places  will  generally  attract  such  birds 
as  wrens  and  bluebirds.  The  practice  of  feeding  birds  in 
winter  often  encourages  them  to  become  permanent  residents. 
At  least  a  dozen  different  kinds  of  birds  spend  the  winter  in 
the  Northern  States.  During  severe  weather,  especially 
when  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow,  these  birds  have  a 


Nesting  sites  for  birds.    Two  martin  boxes. 

hard  time  to  get  enough  to  eat.    Providing  food  at  such  times 
would  prevent  many  from  starving. 

There  are  two  rather  common  enemies  of  song  birds  that 
should  be  held  in  check.  One  is  the  English  sparrow  which 
is  found  almost  everywhere.  It  generally  succeeds  in  driv- 
ing other  birds  away,  and,  as  far  as  is  known,  does  little  by 
way  of  compensation.  It  should  be  trapped  or  poisoned 
during  the  winter.  At  this  time  there  is  the  least  danger  of 
injuring  other  birds  by  these  methods.  A  good  summary  of 


200  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

means  of  control  of  the  English  sparrow  may  be  found  in 
Farmers  Bulletin  493.  Another  foe  is  the  domestic  cat.  It 
is  said  on  good  authority  that  one  cat  is  responsible  for  the 
destruction  of  fifty  birds  in  one  season.  Some  cats  may  not 
be  so  destructive,  but  some  are  more  destructive,  so  that 
fifty  is  thought  to  be  a  reasonable  average.  The  cat  has 
been  a  pet  so  long  that  it  is  hard  to  believe  the  evidence 
that  has  accumulated  against  it.  Nevertheless,  this  evidence 
is  too  well  founded  to  be  disregarded.  Much  of  the  damage 
by  cats  occurs  at  night  or  early  in  the  morning.  The  mother 
bird  is  caught  on  her  nest,  and  the  young  birds  before  they  are 
able  to  fly  or  just  after  they  leave  the  nest.  It  is  doubtful 
if  the  most  careful  feeding  will  prevent  a  cat  from  exercising 
its  natural  instinct  to  kill.  If  cats  are  necessary  it  has  been 
suggested  that  each  one  should  have  a  small  bell  tied  to  its 
neck  to  give  warning  to  birds  in  time  to  permit  their  escape. 
Appreciation  of  birds.  —  The  interest  in  birds,  the  enjoy- 
ment of  their  song  and  beauty,  the  recognition  of  the  service 
they  render  as  allies  in  the  conflict  with  insects  and  weeds, 
should  spread  in  every  farm  community,  so  that  birds  will 
be  encouraged  to  come  there  and  build  their  nests  and  rear 
their  young.  This  service  can  be  given  by  boys  and  girls 
who  are  interested  in  birds,  and  who  enjoy  and  appreciate 
them. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
WHY  RAISE  FARM  ANIMALS 

Importance  of  farm  animals.  —  The  total  number  of  farm 
animals  in  the  United  States  for  any  one  year  is  a  good  index 
of  their  importance  as  a  farm  product.  For  the  year  1916 
the  values  were  estimated  as  follows: 

Horses $2,150,468,000.00 

Cattle 2,306,254,000.00 

Sheep 254,348,000.00 

Swine 571,890,000.00 

Attention  has  been  called  to  the  fact  that  the  demand  for 
farm  products  is  fast  overtaking  their  production.  This  is 
particularly  true  of  meat  animals.  For  example,  the  number 
of  beef  cattle  in  1900  was  50,083,777,  but  in  1916  was  only 
39,453,630;  while  the  population  had  increased  from  77,- 
256,630  in  1900  to  over  100,000,000  in  1916. 

Aside  from  the  need  of  farm  animals  as  indicated  by  demand 
and  supply  there  is  another  equally  important  reason  for 
their  production.  It  has  to  do  with  a  system  of  general 
farming  which  makes  a  profitable  use  of  crops  and  of  crop 
residue,  and  at  the  same  time  makes  provision  for  maintaining 
the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Farm  animals  are  necessary  for  a 
system  of  this  kind. 

Soil  fertility.  —  Crop  farming  has  been  shown  to  be  not 
only  less  profitable  than  general  farming,  but  more  wasteful 
of  soil  fertility.  Special  farming,  such  as  truck  gardening, 

201 


202  PRINCIPLES   OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

orcharding  and  the  like,  requiring  special  knowledge  and 
experience,  has  its  place,  but  the  market  demand  for  such 
products  may  be  supplied  by  relatively  few  farmers.  The 
large  majority  of  farms  must  be  devoted  to  general  farming. 
The  manure  produced  on  such  farms,  if  properly  cared  for 
and  applied  to  the  soil,  is  of  considerable  importance. 

Its  value  for  keeping  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil  has  been 
discussed  in  detail  in  Chapter  IV.  When  balanced  with  a 
phosphate  of  some  kind,  manure  makes  the  best  fertilizer. 
Besides  it  furnishes  organic  matter  which  is  essential  for 
maintaining  a  favorable  soil  structure,  and  for  increasing  the 
water  capacity  of  the  soil. 

Disposal  of  crops.  —  The  production  of  stock  on  the  farm 
affords  a  ready  means  for  disposing  of  various  crops.  This 
does  not  mean  that  no  crops  are  to  be  sold  for  cash,  but  if  all 
crops  are  sold  there  is  a  difficulty  in  keeping  up  soil  fertility 
and  a  loss  in  crop  residue  that  cannot  be  sold.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  too  much  stock  is  kept  some  feed  must  be  bought, 
often  at  a  higher  price  than  it  can  be  produced  on  the  farm. 
Extremes  in  either  direction  should  be  avoided.  The  most 
profitable  kind  of  farming  is  usually  one  that  combines  live- 
stock and  cash  crops. 

Crop  residue.  —  There  is  always  a  crop  residue  such  as 
stubble,  corn  stalks,  and  low-grade  hay.  There  may  be  waste 
land  which  cannot  be  cultivated  but  which  may  furnish 
pasture.  All  this  may  be  utilized  in  feeding  some  farm  animals. 
Such  feeding  material  becomes  a  source  of  profit  instead  of 
waste. 

Labor.  —  The  keeping  of  farm  animals  permits  a  good 
distribution  of  labor  throughout  the  year.  Where  crops  only 
are  produced,  a  considerable  portion  of  the  farmer's  time 
during  the  year  is  unemployed.  The  feeding  and  care  of 


WHY  RAISE  FARM  ANIMALS  203 

live-stock  requires  most  attention  during  a  period  when  little 
work  is  needed  for  crop  production.  Animal  production, 
therefore,  fills  a  gap  in  labor  employment.  It  makes  possible 
a  turning  to  profit  of  time  which  might  otherwise  be  wasted. 
Furthermore,  much  of  the  care  necessary  for  farm  animals 
during  the  cropping  season  is  given  during  mornings  and 
evenings,  thus  allowing  time  for  a  good  day's  work.  For 
these  reasons  live-stock  may  be  said  to  be  produced  on  cheap 
time. 

System  of  farming.  —  If  the  balance  between  crops  and 
animals  is  properly  maintained  in  a  well-planned  system,  such 
a  system  of  farming  is  well  adapted  to  the  average  farm.  In 
this  connection  should  be  mentioned  a  kind  of  specialized 
farming  —  the  raising  of  farm  animals  of  a  particular  breed. 
Farms  of  this  kind,  in  a  limited  number,  are  not  only  quite 
profitable  when  well  managed,  but  are  also  an  important 
source  for  supplying  pure-bred  animals  for  use  on  farms  de- 
voted to  general  farming.  On  such  farms  crop  raising  may 
be  a  secondary  matter.  In  our  discussion  of  farm  animals 
their  relation  to  general  farming  only  will  be  considered. 

Relation  between  production  of  crops  and  farm  animals. 
-The  advantage  of  establishing  a  cropping  system  for 
maintaining  soil  fertility  and  for  control  of  weeds,  plant 
diseases  and  insects  has  been  shown  in  previous  chapters. 

A  system  of  this  kind  is  necessary  for  permanent  agri- 
culture. When  farm  animals  are  raised,  a  cropping  system 
must  be  followed  which  will  not  only  include  these  two 
provisions  but  a  third  also  —  one  to  meet  the  food  require- 
ments of  animals.  Fortunately  this  simplifies  the  problem 
of  planning  a  system  of  farming,  for,  as  has  already  been 
emphasized,  animal  wastes  furnish  an  important  means  of 
maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  In  general,  farm  animals 


204  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

require  a  certain  feeding  balance  which  can  be  provided  on 
the  average  farm. 

We  have  seen  why  the  production  of  farm  animals  is  of 
great  importance  in  supplying  the  needs  of  the  Nation;  and 
how  it  affords  a  good  means  of  maintaining  the  fertility  of 
the  soil,  of  disposing  of  the  farm  crops,  of  utilizing  crop  residue, 
of  employing  farm  labor  to  good  advantage,  and  of  making 
possible  a  system  of  farming  which  is  generally  profitable. 
We  will  next  consider  some  of  the  main  facts  concerning  the 
production  of  farm  animals. 


CHAPTER  XX 
HOW  TO  PRODUCE  FARM  ANIMALS 

How  farm  animals  are  secured.  —  There  are  two  ways 
in  general  practice  of  securing  animals  for  the  farm.  One 
is  by  purchase,  the  other  by  raising  them. 

Many  farmers  do  not  attempt  to  raise  their  own  stock, 
but  buy  it  instead,  especially  beef  cattle  and,  to  a  certain 
extent,  sheep  and  hogs.  Beef  cattle  bought  as  "  feeders  " 
illustrates  this  practice.  The  "  feeders  "  are  generally  too 
much  lacking  in  weight  and  finish  for  sale  to  packers.  Their 
cost  is  considerably  less  per  hundred  pounds  than  the  cost 
of  cattle  in  a  finished  condition.  The  feeder,  therefore,  has 
two  possible  sources  of  profit:  the  gain  in  price  per  hundred 
between  cost  and  selling  price;  and  the  gain  in  weight  taken 
on  by  the  animals  during  the  feeding  period.  For  example, 
if  cattle  weighing  900  pounds  are  bought  at  $11  per 
hundred  and  sold  at  a  weight  of  1300  pounds  at  $16  per 
hundred,  for  each  animal  there  will  be  a  gain  of  $109. 
Part  of  this  profit,  $45,  represents  the  difference  .between 
the  buying  and  selling  price.  This  difference  is  sometimes 
called  the  spread  or  margin.  The  rest  of  the  profit  comes 
from  the  400  pounds  gain  made  by  the  animals.  This  amounts 
to  $64. 

Importance  of  well-bred  animals.  —  The  same  principles 
apply  to  the  production  of  animals  on  the  farm  as  to  the 
production  of  high-yielding  farm  plants.  Improved  animals, 
or  those  that  are  well  bred,  are  always  more  desirable  than 

205 


206  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

scrubs  or  inferior  animals.  They  are  more  profitable  whether 
produced  for  meat,  milk,  or  labor  than  those  of  inferior  breed- 
ing. The  advantage  of  good  breeding  is  illustrated  by  the 
following  example.  A  herd  of  twenty-seven  dairy  cows 
produced  in  one  year  an  average  for  each  of  3737  quarts  of 
milk.  This  herd  had  been  gradually  improved  and  developed 
from  animals  that  were  about  the  average  for  the  county 
in  which  the  farm  was  located.  The  county  average  was  low 
as  indicated  by  the  estimated  yield  which  was  annually 
but  1989  quarts  per  cow.  Estimating  the  milk  at  four  cents 
per  quart,  the  gross  income  produced  by  the  average  cow 
of  the  county  was  $79.56,  while  that  of  the  average  of  the 
improved  herd  was  $149.48  —  a  difference  of  $69.92  in  favor 
of  the  latter.  This  is  not  an  unusual  incident.  In  almost 
any  locality  a  comparison  of  the  milk  production  of  the 
average  cows  with  that  of  improved  stock  will  show  a  similar 
difference. 

Feeding  farm  animals.  —  Success  in  live-stock  production 
depends  quite  as  much  upon  proper  feeding  as  upon  the 
selection  of  good  animals.  Indeed,  well-bred  animals  re- 
spond better  to  careful  feeding  than  those  of  inferior  breeding. 

Reference  was  made  in  a  previous  chapter  to  a  feeding 
balance.  Such  a  balance  includes  rough  feed  such  as  hay  or 
pasture;  concentrates  which  have  a  large  starch  content, 
such  as  corn;  and  protein  feeds  such  as  that  furnished  by 
clover  and  alfalfa.  It  happens  that  a  crop  rotation  which 
will  fulfill  the  first  two  requirements  of  a  cropping  system, 
mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  Crop  Production,  will  also  meet 
the  needs  of  farm  animals.  For  example,  a  wheat-clover- 
corn  rotation  tends  to  maintain  soil  fertility  through  the 
clover,  to  secure  freedom  from  weeds  through  the  cultivation 
of  corn,  and  to  control  plant  diseases  and  insects  through 


HOW  TO  PRODUCE  FARM  ANIMALS  207 

a  yearly  alternation  of  crops  on  the  same  field.  But  at  the 
same  time  this  rotation  furnishes  roughage  in  the  form  of 
wheat  straw  and  corn  stover,  concentrates  in  the  form  of 
corn  grain,  and  protein  and  roughage  in  the  form  of  clover. 
The  rotation  may  be  varied  somewhat  by  using  oats  and 
timothy  on  small  areas  to  take  care  of  the  special  needs  of 
work  horses.  In  some  such  way  the  farm  may  be  made  to 
attain  a  high  efficiency  in  production  both  of  crops  and 
farm  animals,  and  at  the  same  time  may  maintain  this  ef- 
ficiency by  keeping  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

Principles  of  feeding  farm  animals.  —  In  order  to  secure 
the  best  results  in  the  feeding  of  farm,  animals  and  also  to 
furnish  a  variety  of  feeding  material  in  sufficient  quantities, 
it  is  necessary  to  follow  certain  principles  of  stock  feeding 
established  by  experience  and  scientific  study. 

All  farm  animals  need  feed  for  two  purposes;  to  supply 
energy,  and  to  supply  material  for  growth  or  for  replacing 
parts  of  used-up  tissues.  The  combination  of  feed  materials 
used  by  an  animal  is  called  a  ration,  which  also  refers  to 
the  amount  of  feed  used  in  one  day.  If  the  ration  is  just 
enough  to  keep  the  animal  alive  and  healthy  it  is  called  a 
maintenance  ration.  But  if,  in  addition  to  the  amount  needed 
for  maintenance,  it  supplies  a  surplus  for  producing  fat  in 
hogs,  milk  in  dairy  cattle,  or  labor  in  horses,  it  is  known  as 
a  productive  ration. 

A  ration  which  meets  the  needs  of  an  animal  must  contain 
three  substances:  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fats.  Protein 
is  a  name  given  to  a  class  of  substances  such  as  white  of  egg, 
lean  of  meat,  gluten  of  flour,  etc.  Carbohydrate  refers  to 
starch,  sugar,  and  cellulose;  and  fats  to  oily  substances  such 
as  tallow,  lard,  butter,  and  to  the  oil  of  seeds,  such  as  cotton 
seed,  corn,  etc. 


208  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Carbohydrates  serve  the  same  purpose  as  fats;  both  are 
energy-producing  feeds.  But  a  given  amount  of  fat  produces 
about  two  and  one-fourth  times  as  much  energy  as  the  same 
amount  of  carbohydrates.  In  order  to  simplify  calculations 
in  the  study  of  rations,  it  is  customary  to  reduce  fats  to  their 
carbohydrate  equivalent,  by  multiplying  the  amount  of 
digestible  fat  by  two  and  one-fourth.  The  product  obtained 
is  added  to  the  amount  of  carbohydrates,  and  the  sum  will 
give  the  total  energy-producing  material  in  terms  of  carbo- 
hydrates. 

With  these  definitions  in  mind  we  will  pass  to  their  appli- 
cation. Two  things  should  be  taken  into  consideration:  the 
composition  of  feeding-stuff,  and  the  rations,  called  standard 
rations,  that  have  been  proved  by  experience  and  scientific 
investigation  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  for  the  various 
classes  of  farm  animals.  The  problem  is  to  secure  for  a 
particular  animal  a  combination  of  feed  material  that  will 
as  nearly  as  possible  fulfill  the  requirement  of  the  standard 
ration.  Such  a  combination  should  take  into  consideration 
the  composition  of  the  various  substances  used  by  animals 
as  feed.  All  kinds  of  feeding  material  have  been  carefully 
analyzed  and  the  results  placed  in  tables  for  reference.  In 
the  appendix  of  this  book  is  a  table  compiled  from  such 
sources,  giving  the  composition  of  many  common  feeds. 

Standard  rations.  —  A  standard  ration  is  a  certain  com- 
bination of  feeds  adapted  to  a  particular  class  of  animals. 
Each  standard  ration  has  been  developed  through  many 
years  of  experience  in  feeding  farm  animals,  and  through  a 
study  of  experiments  designed  to  show  the  effects  of  various 
combinations  of  feeds  on  different  farm  animals. 

While  the  standard  rations  are  by  no  means  perfect,  they 
furnish  the  best  guide  now  available  for  intelligent  feeding. 


HOW  TO  PRODUCE  FARM  ANIMALS 


209 


Sometimes  the  combination  in  the  ration  is  expressed  by 
merely  indicating  the  ratio  between  the  amount  of  protein 
and  total  carbohydrates  (the  latter  including  fats  reduced  to 
terms  of  carbohydrates).  Such  ratios  are  called  nutritive 
ratios.  They  are  expressed  in  this  way:  The  first  figure  is 
always  i ;  the  second  is  the  quotient  obtained  by  dividing 
the  total  amount  of  carbohydrates  by  the  amount  of  protein. 


DEC.             JAN. 
9   16  23  30  6  13  20  27  3 

FEB.             1 
10  17  24  2    S 

1AR.           A 
16  23  30  6 

PR. 

3 
IBS. 
PER 
WK. 
220 
210 
200 
190 
180 
170 
160 
150 
140 
130 
120 
110 
100 

10 

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10' 

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I  p 

Ml 

A 

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ty 

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-fl 

IF 

I 

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BF 

Al 

Graph  showing  returns  from  cattle  and  hogs  per 
$100  worth  of  feed  used  on  farms  of  various  sizes. 
—  Cattle.        Hogs. 

(Figures  from  Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 

Thus  if  the  ration  contains  three  pounds  of  protein  and 
twenty-one  pounds  of  carbohydrates,  the  nutritive  ratio  is 
1:7. 

Although  the  nutritive  ratio  shows  the  desirable  proportion 
between  protein  and  carbohydrates,  it  does  not  indicate  the 
amounts  of  each.  A  standard  ration  obviates  this  difficulty 
by  giving  the  estimated  amount  of  protein  and  of  carbo- 
hydrates needed  for  each  1000  pounds  of  animal  weight. 
Some  of  the  standard  rations  will  be  found  in  the  appendix. 


210  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Standardizing  a  ration.  —  A  ration  is  standardized  by  com- 
paring it  with  the  standard  for  the  class  of  animals  to  be 
fed,  and  then  correcting  it  to  make  it  conform  to  the  standard. 
The  ration  to  be  corrected  is  called  the  trial  ration.  The  trial 
ration  may  be  one  in  actual  use  or  may  be  a  mere  guess  as 
to  the  probable  needs  of  the  animal  for  which  it  is  intended. 
The  following  steps  are  necessary  in  standardizing  a  ration: 
First,  by  means  of  a  table  giving  the  composition  of  digestible 
feeds,  determine  the  total  dry  matter,  protein  and  carbo- 
hydrates in  the  trial  ration;  second,  find  the  difference  be- 
tween each  item  of  the  trial  ration  and  the  corresponding  item 
of  the  standard  ration;  then  correct  the  trial  ration  to  corre- 
spond closely,  but  not  necessarily  exactly,  with  the  standard. 
An  example  will  show  how  these  steps  are  actually  made  in 
standardizing  a  ration. 

A  standard  ration  for  cattle,  per  1000  pounds  live  weight, 
first  period,  contains  these  nutrients:  protein,  2.5  pounds; 
carbohydrates  and  fats,  16.1  pounds. 

Suppose  a  ration  of  20  pounds  of  red  clover  hay  and  10 
pounds  of  dent  corn  is  being  fed  to  a  1 2oo-pound  steer.  Con- 
sidering this  as  a  trial  ration  the  nutrients  as  determined  from 
a  table  of  digestible  nutrients  will  be  as  follows: 

Carbohydrates  and 
Trial  Ration  Protein  (pounds) 

20  Ibs.  clover  hay 1.42 

10  Ibs.  dent  corn .75 

2.17 
Standard  ration  for    i2oo-pound 

steer 3.00 

Difference-. .83 

The  difference  shows  the  deficiency  in  protein  to  be  rela- 
tively greater  than  in  carbohydrates.  Therefore  the  correction 


HOW  TO  PRODUCE  FARM  ANIMALS  211 

should  be  made  by  adding  feeds  having  a  narrow  nutritive 
ratio  (one  having  a  large  proportion  of  protein),  such  as 
clover  hay  and  a  small  amount  of  cotton-seed  meal. 

Corrected  Ration  Protein         Carbohydrates  and  fats 

25  Ibs.  clover  hay 1.78  10 . 5 

10  Ibs.  dent  corn 75  7  •  24 

i  Ib.  cotton-seed  meal .40  .40 

2.93  18.14 

Standard 3-°°  18.60 

Difference 07  .46 

The  corrected  ration  conforms  to  the  standard  more  closely 
than  is  really  necessary  in  actual  feeding  practice. 

In  standardizing  rations  it  is  desirable  also  to  pay  some 
attention  to  the  money  value  of  the  feeds  used.  Often  an 
inexpensive  feed  which  has  the  same  feeding  value  as  an 
expensive  one  may  be  used.  Again,  preference  should  be 
given  to  feeds  grown  on  the  farm,  if  they  can  be  produced 
more  cheaply  than  they  can  be  bought.  Here  it  is  a  question 
of  deciding  which  is  cheaper,  home-grown  or  purchased  feeds. 
For  example,  one  farmer  found  that  he  could  get  the  best 
return  from  his  land  and  labor  by  raising  potatoes  and  selling 
them,  and  then  buying  grain  for  feeding  purposes.  Making 
correct  decisions  in  such  matters  is  an  important  factor  in 
successful  farming.  There  are  many  things  to  take  into 
consideration;  conditions  will  vary  in  different  localities  and 
even  on  different  farms  in  the  same  community.  It  happened 
that  the  farm  just  referred  to  was  well  adapted  for  potato 
growing  and  situated  near  a  good  market.  Perhaps  other 
farms  in  the  same  region  were  not  so  well  suited  for  potato 
production  and  could  not  make  such  a  system  profitable. 

Preparing  and  compounding  a  ration.  —  After  the  ration 
has  been  standardized  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  prepare  it. 


212  PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM   PRACTICE 

A  ration  will  always  contain  two  parts,  a  bulky  one,  called 
roughage  (hay  is  an  example),  another  much  less  bulky, 
called  concentrates  (grain  is  an  example).  The  roughage 
should  be  weighed  separately  so  as  to  indicate  the  bulk  neces- 
sary for  one  day's  feed  for  one  animal.  After  a  little  experience 
it  is  possible  to  guess  closely  enough  to  the  required  bulk  of 
roughage  without  weighing  it.  The  designated  amounts  of 
concentrates  are  weighed  out  in  sufficient  quantities  to  feed 
all  the  animals  for  one  week,  or  perhaps  a  month,  and  mixed; 
the  amount  to  be  used  for  one  day's  feeding  of  one  animal 
is  then  weighed  from  the  mixture.  Afterward  the  daily 
portion  of  concentrates  may  be  guessed  at  with  sufficient 
accuracy  for  practical  purposes.  The  daily  portions  of 
both  roughage  and  concentrates  should  be  weighed  from 
time  to  time  in  order  to  be  sure  that  they  are  sufficiently 
accurate. 

The  standard  is  meant  for  an  average  animal  of  its  class, 
but  individuals  vary  somewhat  in  their  feeding  requirements. 
For  this  reason  each  animal  should  be  watched  closely,  as 
it  may  be  necessary  to  increase  the  ration  for  some  and  to 
reduce  it  for  others.  The  greatest  value  found  in  standardiz- 
ing rations  is  that  it  secures  the  right  proportion  of  feed 
ingredients  and  forms  a  basis  for  feeding  that  will  require 
least  modification  to  meet  the  requirements  of  individual 
animals;  but  nothing  can  take  the  place  of  experience  in 
feeding  if  results  are  checked  by  intelligent  observation. 

Care  of  farm  animals.  —  In  addition  to  having  a  sufficient 
amount  of  the  right  kind  of  feed,  properly  balanced,  animals 
should  also  have  good  care;  this  includes  regular  feeding, 
access  to  plenty  of  water,  salting,  shelter  for  protection  against 
cold  and  wet  weather,  and  kindness  in  handling  them.  A 
careful  observation  of  these  demands  is  not  only  a  humane 


HOW  TO  PRODUCE  FARM  ANIMALS  213 

obligation  toward  dependent  creatures,  but  may  prove  a 
source  of  profit  as  well.  -i 

Farm  animals  are  more  sensitive  to  irregular  feeding 
periods  than  human  beings.  Regular  feeding  is  important 
where  it  is  a  question  of  making  an  animal  produce  most 
efficiently  and  profitably,  and  not  merely  one  of  keeping 
it  alive,  as  in  "  roughing  "  calves  through  the  winter. 

Water  must  be  provided  with  the  same  regularity  as  feed. 
It  is  better  to  supply  water  so  that  animals  may  drink  as 
much  and  as  often  as  they  desire. 

Salt  seems  to  be  necessary  to  maintain  the  health  of  live 
stock.  It  is  especially  important  for  cattle  and  sheep.  Salt 
should  be  given  at  regular  intervals  not  too  far  apart.  Some 
dairy  farmers  add  a  little  salt  to  each  daily  ration. 

Animals  need  fresh  air  but  they  should  not  be  exposed  to 
cold  and  wet.  The  comfort  of  the  animal  is  not  the  only 
consideration.  The  heat  necessary  to  keep  the  body  warm 
and  to  evaporate  cold  rain  or  sleet  from  the  body  surface 
is  generated  by  the  feed  eaten  by  the  animal;  therefore,  the 
more  the  animal  is  exposed  the  more  feed  it  will  need.  Conse- 
quently it  is  economic  as  well  as  humane  to  give  farm  animals 
shelter  adequate  for  protection  from  bad  weather.  j 

It  should  be  the  rule  to  be  kind  and  gentle  in  the  treat- 
ment of  farm  animals.  Such  treatment  is  not  only  of  benefit 
to  the  animals  themselves  but  reacts  also  upon  the  person 
handling  them. 

Improving  animals.  —  A  reference  was  made  in  the  first 
part  of  this  chapter  to  the  advantage  of  securing  well-bred 
animals  over  using  those  of  inferior  breeding.  In  farm  practice 
the  method  most  used  for  improving  live  stock  is  known  as 
grading.  Grading  is  based  upon  selection,  and  by  means  of 
it  an  inferior  group  of  animals  may  gradually  be  replaced  by 


214  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

better  ones.  If  both  parents  are  inferior,  the  offspring  will 
tend  to  inherit  the  inferior  qualities  of  both  parents.  But 
if  one  parent  is  superior,  some  of  the  superior  qualities  will 
be  inherited  by  the  offspring.  A  stock  breeder  —  one  whose 
business  is  to  produce  pure-bred  animals  —  will  see  that 
both  parents  are  superior,  but  such  a  method  requires  too 
much  capital  to  be  followed  by  the  average  farmer. 

The  average  or  general  farmer  can,  however,  afford  to 
purchase  from  a  reliable  stock  breeder  a  pure-bred  sire;  or 
several  farmers  may  jointly  purchase  one.  In  this  way  may 
be  secured  one  superior  parent  for  the  animals  produced  on 
the  farm.  The  first  generation  of  offspring  will  be  better 
than  the  average  of  the  original  herd,  and  each  succeeding 
generation  will  continue  to  be  an  improvement  over  the  one 
before.  As  fast  as  the  improved  animals  appear  they  may 
take  the  place  of  the  inferior  ones,  which  may  be  disposed  of. 
In  this  way  any  group  of  farm  animals,  such  as  a  herd  of 
dairy  cattle,  swine,  or  sheep,  may  be  graded  up  in  a  few  years 
from  inferior  to  superior  animals. 

Planning  a  cropping  system  for  animal  production.  —  The 
importance  of  a  definite  system  of  farming  has  been  empha- 
sized many  times  in  one  way  or  another.  It  is  not  an  easy 
matter  to  plan  and  carry  out  such  a  system  but  it  is  essential 
for  the  greatest  success.  If  we  apply  all  that  has  already 
been  presented  in  the  discussion  of  the  soil,  crops,  and  feed- 
ing of  animals,  we  find  three  things  that  seem  essential  in  a 
plan  for  general  farming:  first,  maintaining  the  fertility  of 
the  soil  and  improving  soil  conditions;  second,  producing  as 
much  of  the  necessary  feed  for  animals  as  possible;  third, 
providing  some  profitable  cash  crop,  if  soil  and  climatic 
conditions  and  facilities  for  marketing  warrant.  The  princi- 
ples which  furnish  a  guide  to  the  first  have  been  presented 


HOW  TO  PRODUCE  FARM  ANIMALS  215 

in  Chapters  II-VI.  Some  of  the  main  facts  concerning 
various  crops  that  should  be  considered  in  selecting  the  ones 
for  best  production  are  given  in  Chapters  VII-XI.  The 
advantages  of  live-stock  production  in  a  system  of  farming 
and  the  general  principles  of  such  production  have  been 
considered  in  this  chapter  and  in  the  preceding  one.  A 
fourth  item  in  planning  —  the  choice  of  animals  that  are 
to  be  included  in  the  system  —  remains  to  be  presented.  In 
order  to  make  an  intelligent  choice  something  should  be 
known  of  the  influence  of  various  factors,  such  as  size  of  the 
farm,  markets,  etc.,  upon  the  selection  of  the  kinds  of  farm 
animals. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
KIND   OF  FARM  ANIMALS  TO  KEEP 

THE  choice  of  animals  to  keep  on  the  farm  depends  upon 
several  factors.  There  is  no  good  reason  to  believe  that  one 
kind  is  always  more  profitable  than  another.  One  farmer 
may  conclude  that  dairy  cattle  yield  the  greatest  profit, 
while  his  neighbor  may  be  equally  sure  that  hogs  are  most 
profitable.  Perhaps  both  may  be  right,  for  each  man  may 
know  how  to  manage  the  animals  of  his  own  choice  better 
than  any  other.  So  the  first  factor  in  determining  a  choice 
of  live-stock  is  the  personal  preference  of  the  farmer  himself. 
The  choice  may  be  further  influenced  by  the  size  of  the  farm, 
market  facilities,  lay  of  the  land,  and  available  capital. 

Personal  preference.  —  Likes  and  dislikes  must  be  taken 
into  consideration,  for  they  are  often  based  upon  some  past 
experience  that  may  favor  or  hinder  success.  A  farmer  who 
dislikes  sheep  is  not  likely  to  succeed  as  well  in  raising  them 
as  another  who  is  more  interested  in  them.  In  some  instances, 
no  doubt,  large  profits  may  tend  to  change  a  farmer's  attitude 
toward  a  particular  kind  of  animal. 

Size  of  farm.  —  As  a  rule  small  animals  and  small  farms 
go  together.  A  farm  of  forty  acres  or  less  would  not  be 
adapted  to  raising  dairy  or  beef  cattle,  for  it  would  not  produce 
enough  rough  feed  and  pasture.  But  it  might  do  very  well 
for  poultry,  hogs,  or  even  sheep.  Large  farms,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  well  adapted  to  raising  beef  cattle  or  horses,  as 

216 


KIND   OF   FARM   ANIMALS  TO  KEEP 


217 


Ho 


well  as  hogs  and  sheep.  All  the  necessary  feed  may  be  pro- 
duced on  such  farms,  and  the  cost  of  keeping  the  stock  may 
be  much  reduced  by  allowing  the  animals  to  have  access  to 
pastures  and  rough  feed.  A  survey  of  a  number  of  Missouri 
farms  showed  that  on  farms  of  40  acres  or  less,  the  return 
for  one  hundred  dollars  worth  of  feed  used  was  $94  from 
cattle,  and  $172  from 
hogs ;  but  on  farms  of  1 2 1- 
200  acres,  the  return  from 
cattle  was  $115,  and  from 
hogs  $174.  This  seems 
to  confirm  the  rule  of 
small  animals  for  small 
farms. 

The  relation  of  the  size 
of  the  farm  to  the  num- 
ber and  kind  of  farm 
animals  is  indicated  in 
the  following  estimate 
giving  the  average  num- 
ber of  acres  necessary  to 
support  one  animal: 
Horse,  3-5  acres;  cattle, 
per  head,  3  acres;  hog,  i  acre;  sheep,  J  acre.  These  figures 
are  estimates  only,  but  are  sufficiently  reliable  to  indicate 
approximately  whether  a  farm  is  over-  or  under-stocked. 

Markets.  —  The  distance  from  market  and  the  character  of 
shipping  facilities  are  of  importance  in  making  a  choice  of 
farm  animals.  A  short  distance  to  market  is  favorable  for 
the  shipment  of  all  kinds  of  live-stock;  a  long  distance  en- 
tails shrinkage  in  weight  and  liability  of  loss  by  accident. 
Cattle  and  sheep  stand  long-distance  shipping  better  than 


Graph  showing  return  from  cattle  and 


2i8  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

hogs.  Wool  may  be  shipped  any  distance  without  much,  if 
any,  loss.  This  fact  accounts,  in  part  at  least,  for  the  pro- 
duction of  sheep  in  several  of  the  western  states  where  the 
shipping  points  are  remote  from  market.  Milk  and  cream, 
being  perishable  products,  must  be  marketed  at  frequent 
intervals.  Dairy  animals  would  not  be  a  wise  selection  for 
farms  remote  from  markets  or  shipping  points. 

Lay  of  the  land.  —  The  way  the  land  lies  —  whether  hilly 
or  level  —  may  determine  the  kind  of  live-stock  best  suited 
to  a  farm.  Rough  land  can  be  used  for  pasture,  while  only 
level  land  can  be  cultivated.  Sheep  and  beef  cattle  would  do 
well  on  a  hilly  farm,  if  there  were  enough  level  land  to  furnish 
grain  and  hay  for  winter  feeding.  Low,  wet  land  is  not 
suitable  for  sheep  raising,  because  such  locations  increase  the 
danger  of  foot-rot  and  other  diseases.  High,  dry  ground, 
with  plenty  of  pasture,  is  necessary  for  success  in  producing 
sheep.  Hogs  could  not  be  used  to  advantage  on  hill  land, 
because  the  pastures  could  not  be  utilized  sufficiently.  Dairy 
stock  would  not  be  likely  to  be  profitable  in  a  very  hilly 
region,  because  of  the  difficulties  in  transportation  of  the 
products. 

Capital.  —  There  are  two  things  that  must  be  noticed  in 
considering  the  relation  of  capital  to  the  kind  of  farm  animals 
to  be  produced:  the  cost  or  value  of  the  individual  animals; 
and  the  length  of  time  that  must  elapse  before  the  animals 
are  ready  for  market.  If  the  capital  is  limited,  animals  of 
low  cost,  such  as  sheep,  hogs  or  poultry,  should  be  selected; 
if  a  regular  income  is  needed,  dairy  animals  would  yield 
products  ready  for  sale  each  day.  Sheep  require  from  four 
to  six  months  to  bring  in  a  return;  hogs,  six  to  eight  months; 
beef  cattle,  six  to  ten  months  if  bought  as  feeders,  and  one 
to  two  years  if  raised  on  the  farm;  horses,  three  years. 


KIND  OF  FARM  ANIMALS  TO  KEEP  219 

The  lack  of  capital  is  one  of  the  greatest  drawbacks  to 
keeping  farms  well  stocked;  local  banks  help  solve  the  problem 
by  lending  money  to  farmers.  The  Federal  Farm  Loan  Act 
(passed  in  1916)  is  intended  to  furnish  farmers  with  sufficient 
capital  to  enable  them  to  extend  their  farm  operations. 

Types  and  breeds  of  farm  animals.  —  So  far  our  study  of 
farm  animals  has  been  an  attempt  to  answer  three  questions: 
Why  keep  them?  How  produce  them?  What  kinds  to  keep? 
We  need  next  to  consider  some  of  the  main  facts  concerning 
the  production  of  the  great  classes  of  farm  animals.  Each  of 
the  next  six  chapters  will  be  devoted  to  particular  problems 
concerning  the  production  of  one  of  these  classes. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
PRODUCTION   OF  BEEF  CATTLE 

FACTORS  that  must  be  considered  in  deciding  whether  or 
not  beef  cattle  should  be  produced  on  a  particular  farm  are 
the  prospects  for  a  continued  favorable  market,  sufficient 
capital,  and  the  character  of  the  farm  itself. 

Market  demands.  —  There  are  several  reasons  for  the 
belief  that  the  demand  for  beef  cattle  will  continue  to  be  as 
great  as,  or  even  greater  than,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Great 
War.  The  outlook,  as  it  appeared  in  1914,  has  been  summed 
up  by  Professors  Mumford  and  Hall,  of  the  University  of 
Illinois,  as  follows:  "The  undeveloped  state  of  cattle  pro- 
duction in  proportion  to  the  population  and  the  area  of  the 
United  States,  as  compared  with  the  condition  of  the  indus- 
try in  older  countries,  justifies  the  expectation  of  an  ultimate 
extension  and  development  of  cattle  raising  in  this  country. 
The  rapid  increase  of  population  and  the  slower  rate  of  in- 
crease in  number  of  cattle  have  rendered  the  export  trade  a 
relatively  insignificant  factor;  but  with  a  large  domestic 
demand  in  proportion  to  the  supply  and  limited  competition 
from  abroad,  the  industry  should  be  practically  independent 
of  foreign  trade.  General  market  conditions  are  now  and 
promise  to  remain  favorable  to  the  producer,  for  he  has  a 
domestic  market  as  a  regular  outlet  and  a  foreign  market  as 
an  influential  regulator  of  prices  and  as  an  elastic  consumer 
of  surplus." 

220 


PRODUCTION  OF  BEEF  CATTLE 


221 


Capital.  —  Beef  production  requires  a  considerable  invest- 
ment of  capital.    Not  only  is  the  initial  investment  relatively 
large,  but  it  is  some  time  before  a  return  may  be  expected  — 
not  until  the  cattle  are  sold.    This  time  may  cover  a  period 
of  from  one  to  two 
years    if  the   cattle 
are  to  be  raised  on 
the  farm,  or  from  six 
to    ten    months    if 
feeders  are  used.    In 
many  places  farmers 
are    able   to   secure 

financial     assistance         Diagram  of  beef  animal  showing  position  of 
from      local     banks.  various  cuts  of  beef . 

The  Federal  Loan   Act   already  referred  to  is  intended  to 

aid  farmers  in  financing  such  enterprises  as  beef  production. 

Farm  conditions  favorable  to  beef  production.  —  When  beef 


Diagram  of  side  of  beef  showing  wholesale  cuts. 
(Illinois  Agricultural  Experimental  Station.) 

cattle  are  raised  on  the  farm  the  animals  must  be  kept  for  a 
long  period.  For  this  reason  low-priced  land  and  low-priced 
feed  are  important  factors  in  securing  the  greatest  profit. 
The  wide  use  of  the  western  ranges  for  raising  cattle  is  an 
application  of  this  principle,  and  much  of  the  broken  land  of 


222  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

the  east  also  fulfills  these  two  conditions.  In  addition,  if  the 
cattle  raised  on  the  farm  are  to  be  finished  for  market,  suf- 
ficient grain  must  be  provided  for  this  purpose.  Some  farmers 
raise  their  cattle  on  low-priced  land  and  finish  them  for  the 
market  on  grain  and  hay  produced  on  the  level  and  more 
valuable  parts  of  the  farm. 

If  feeders  are  employed  in  beef  production,  grain  and  rough- 
age both  must  be  supplied,  and  good  farm  land  is  necessary 
to  furnish  them.  Many  farmers  of  the  Corn  Belt,  who  own 
high-priced  land,  convert  their  products  into  beef  by  using 
feeders. 

Raising  beef  cattle  on  the  farm.  —  Among  the  points  that 
should  receive  consideration  are  the  kind  to  raise,  develop- 
ment of  the  herd,  feed-lots  and  buildings,  feeding  and  manage- 
ment, and  marketing. 

Kind  of  cattle  to  raise.  —  Cattle  are  of  two  types,  beef  and 
dairy.  A  third  type,  known  as  dual  purpose,  is  sometimes 
included.  The  latter  is  really  a  beef  type,  however,  which 
has  been  developed  for  milk  production.  To  attain  success 
in  raising  beef  cattle  it  is  important  to  study  types  carefully. 

Characteristics  of  beef  cattle.  —  Certain  parts  of  a  beef 
carcass  are  more  valuable  for  meat  than  others.  The  loin, 
rib,  and  round  cuts  constitute  about  one-half  the  weight  of  a 
carcass  and  possess  more  than  three-fourths  of  the  market 
value.  Buyers  of  beef  cattle  desire  animals  with  these  parts 
highly  developed.  A  study  of  figures  showing  wholesale  cuts, 
and  positions  of  these  parts  on  a  live  animal,  should  be  made 
in  connection  with  the  following  table  giving  the  wholesale 
prices  of  cuts.  It  will  be  seen  from  such  a  study  that  a  beef 
animal  should  possess  a  good  development  of  the  loin,  rib 
and  round  and  a  minimum  development  of  shank  and 
neck. 


PRODUCTION  OF  BEEF  CATTLE 


223 


AVERAGE  WHOLESALE  PRICES  OF  CUTS  or  BEEF  AS  QUOTED  FOR 
FEBRUARY,  1921 


• 

Cut 

No.  of  Ibs. 
(average  per 
side) 

Price  per 
pound 

Total  price 
per  cut 

Round  .  .                   

QO 

$O.  IO 

$17  10 

Loin  
Flank 

80 

IO 

.36 

.  IO 

28.80 

I    OO 

Ribs  

40 

.24 

o  60 

Chuck 

1  20 

.  12 

Id   4.O 

Plate 

20 

.  14. 

2    80 

Front  shank  .  .         .... 

IO 

.07 

•  7O 

370 

$74-40 

Quality.  —  The  quality  of  beef,  including  tenderness, 
flavor,  and  cooking  value,  is  largely  determined  by  the  dis- 
tribution of  fat.  An  even  distribution  of  fat  which  gives  the 
cut  a  marbled  appearance  is  regarded  as  evidence  of  good 


Loin  cuts  from  steers  of  different  market  grades. 

A.   Common.        B.  Medium.        C.   Good.        D.   Choice. 
(Michigan  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 

quality.     The  cuts  represented  in  the  figures  of  the  text 
illustrate  well  and  poorly  marbled  beef. 

Dressing  percentage.  —  The  proportion  between  the  weight 
of  the  carcass  and  the  live  weight  of  an  animal,  expressed  in 
percentage,  is  called  dressing  percentage.  For  example,  a 
steer  with  a  live  weight  of  noo  pounds,  producing' a  dressed 
carcass  of  660  pounds,  would  have  a  dressing  percentage  of 


224  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

60.  The  remaining  40  per  cent  would  represent  wastes,  such 
as  skin,  feet,  head,  internal  organs,  loose  fat,  contents  of 
stomach  and  intestines,  etc.,  which  are  of  little  value  com- 
pared with  meat. 

Dressing  percentage  is  partly  determined  by  the  condition 
and  partly  by  the  conformation  of  an  animal.  One  in  good 
condition  will  have  a  higher  percentage  than  one  in  poor 
condition;  one  having  a  blocky  conformation,  a  higher 
percentage  than  one  with  an  angular,  paunchy  conformation. 


Loin  cut  of  prime   steer  showing    well    marbled 

appearance  of  the  meat. 
(Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 

A  beef   animal  in  good  condition  should   have  a  dressing 
percentage  of  60  or  more. 

Economical  gains.  —  The  three  characteristics  just  dis- 
cussed are  important  from  a  buyer's  standpoint.  Animals 
having  good  distribution  of  flesh,  indications  of  quality,  and 
a  high  dressing  percentage  always  command  a  higher  selling 
price  than  those  which  do  not  possess  such  points.  The 
farmer  is  interested  not  only  in  producing  animals  that  will 
sell  well,  but  that  will  also  take  on  weight  and  condition  for 
market  with  the  lowest  possible  consumption  of  feed.  This 
object  is  secured  in  part  by  intelligent  feeding,  but  largely 
by  a  choice  of  animals  capable  of  making  gains  with  low 


PRODUCTION  OF  BEEF   CATTLE 


225 


feed  requirements.  It  happens  that  animals  desirable  from 
the  standpoint  of  market  demands  for  beef  are,  as  a  rule, 
able  to  make  rapid*  and  economical  gains. 

Conformation  of  beef  cattle.  —  Experience  has  shown  that 
a  certain  type  of  animal,  known  as  the  beef  type,  combines 
to  a  great  degree  the  four  desirable  traits  already  described. 
The  chief  points  that  distinguish  this  type  are  as  follows: 
The  body  is  short  and  deep  with  top  and  underlines  parallel; 
neck,  short  and  thick;  legs,  short;  ribs  well  arched  and  ex- 
tending back  toward  the  points  of  hips;  thighs,  full  and  deep; 


Three  aspects  of  a  beef  animal  showing  rectangular  conformation. 

A.  As  seen  from  front. 

B.  As  seen  from  behind. 

C.  As  seen  from  the  side. 

shoulders  and  hips,  smooth;  skin,  mellow  and  pliable;  head, 
long  and  broad,  with  large  muzzle  and  clear  prominent  eyes. 
A  score  card  for  judging  beef  cattle  will  indicate  the  various 
points  in  greater  detail. 

Breeds  of  beef  cattle.  —  The  specifications  of  the  beef  type 
just  described  will  be  met  by  a  good  representative  of  any 
of  the  common  breeds  of  beef  cattle.  Although  there  is  no 
one  breed  that  can  be  regarded  as  best  under  all  conditions, 
it  will  be  worth  while  to  consider  somewhat  in  detail  the 
leading  characteristics  of  the  four  most  important  breeds: 
Shorthorn,  Hereford,  Aberdeen-Angus  and  Galloway. 


226 


PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM  PRACTICE 


Shorthorn.  —  A  typical  Shorthorn  has  width  and  depth  of 
form  and  a  generally  symmetrical  development.  The  head  is 
wide  between  the  eyes,  but  short  from  eyes  to  muzzle,  the 
horns  are  short,  curve  forward  gracefully  and,  in  color,  are 
waxy  white  with  dark  tips.  The  color  of  the  Shorthorn 
varies  from  pure  red  to  pure  white.  These  colors  are 
frequently  mixed,  producing  a  roan.  Red,  white,  and  roan 


An  example  of  the  Shorthorn  breed  of  beef  cattle.    Ohio  Sultan. 
%  (Plumb,  Ohio  State  Agricultural  College.) 

may  be  regarded  as  the  distinguishing  colors  of  the  Shorthorn. 

The  hindquarters  are  especially  well  developed  —  the  best 
of  any  breed.  The  forequarter,  on  the  other  hand,  is  some- 
times lacking  in  development. 

Animals  of  the  Shorthorn  breed  have  a  great  capacity  for 
the  production  of  flesh,  but  come  to  full  maturity  later  than 
other  breeds.  They  are  good  feeders  and  are  able  to  adapt 
themselves  to  a  variety  of  conditions  of  climate  and  feed. 
They  have  a  high  rank  among  beef  breeds,  as  milk  producers. 


PRODUCTION  OF  BEEF   CATTLE 


227 


Certain  strains  have  been  developed  for  the  double  purpose 
of  milk  and  beef  production. 

The  Shorthorn  breed  has  been  used  more  than  any  other 
in  grading  or  improving  common  cattle.  Shorthorn  blood  is 
usually  much  more  in  evidence  in  cattle  markets  than  that 
of  any  other  breed. 

The  hornless  or  polled  Shorthorn,  except  for  lack  of  horns, 


An  example  of  the  Hereford  breed  of  beef  cattle.    A  Hereford  steer, 
one-time  champion  of  Ohio.    (Plumb,  Ohio  State  Agricultural  College.) 

is  like  others  of  its  breed.  It  is  generally  known  as  the  Polled 
Shorthorn. 

Hereford.  —  The  general  conformation  of  the  body  of  the 
Hereford  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Shorthorn,  except  that  it  has 
a  greater  degree  of  smoothness  of  the  shoulders  and  a  better 
development  of  the  loin  region.  The  horns  are  whitish  yellow, 
somewhat  longer  than  those  of  the  Shorthorn,  and  have  a 
tendency  to  droop. 

The  color  markings  are  quite  distinctive.     The  head  and 


228  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

throat  are  white,  with  white  extending  over  the  breast  and 
under  the  body.  White  also  extends  from  the  top  of  the  neck 
to  the  middle  of  the  shoulder.  The  rest  of  the  body  is  red, 
varying  in  intensity  from  dark  to  light  red. 

The  Hereford  puts  on  flesh  at  all  ages.  For  this  reason  it 
is  a  popular  breed  for  the  production  of  "  baby  beef,"  i.e., 
cattle  that  can  be  put  on  the  market  between  twelve  and 
twenty-four  months  of  age,  weighing  from  800  to  1200 
pounds. 

The  breed  is  very  hardy.  It  is  also  a  superior  grazer, 
having  the  ability  to  make  a  good  growth  on  pasture  alone. 
These  characteristics  probably  account  for  the  predominance 
of  "  white  faces,"  as  the  breed  is  sometimes  called,  on  the 
western  ranges. 

As  a  milk  producer  the  Hereford  is  poor,  the  cows  producing 
scarcely  enough  milk  for  their  young. 

Aberdeen- Angus.  —  This  breed  has  all  the  characteristics 
of  the  beef  type.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  to  approach  closely 
the  ideal  of  the  beef  type.  The  proof  of  this  statement  is 
indicated  by  the  fact  that  this  breed  has  been  represented 
among  the  winners  at  the  International  Stock  Exposition  for 
a  number  of  years  and  has  topped  the  cattle  market  at 
Chicago,  with  one  exception,  each  year  for  more  than  twenty 
years.  The  Aberdeen- Angus  is  an  excellent  feeder  and 
matures  early.  It  is  less  hardy  than  the  Hereford  and  seems 
to  reach  its  best  development  in  the  Corn  Belt.  It  produces 
an  excellent  quality  of  beef  and  has  a  high  dressing  per- 
centage. It  is  not  a  milk  producer  but  ranks  somewhat 
higher  than  the  Hereford  in  this  respect. 

Galloway.  —  Like  the  Aberdeen- Angus,  an  animal  of  this 
breed  has  a  short  round  body,  is  black  in  color,  and  has  no 
horns.  It  is  not  likely  to  be  mistaken  for  the  Aberdeen- 


PRODUCTION  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  229 

Angus,  because  of  its  long  shaggy  coat  of  hair  and  rounded, 
instead  of  pointed,  poll. 

The  Galloway  dofcs  not  reach  as  great  size  as  other  breeds. 
It  is  an  economical  feeder,  especially  in  its  ability  to  make  use 
of  rough  feed  and  pasture.  This  characteristic,  together  with 
its  extreme  hardiness,  makes  it  a  desirable  breed  for  certain 
parts  of  the  west  and  north.  In  western  Kansas,  for  example, 


An  example  of  the  Aberdeen- Angus  breed  of  beef  cattle.    An  Aber- 
deen-Angus cow.    Compare  with  cow  of  any  dairy  breed. 
(U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

feeding  experiments  seem  to  indicate  that  the  Galloway  is 
superior  to  all  other  breeds  through  its  adaptation  to  the 
rigorous  climatic  conditions  of  this  region.  Its  flesh  makes 
meat  of  excellent  quality.  It  is  next  to  the  Aberdeen-Angus 
in  dressing  percentage. 

In  winter  the  hair  is  very  thick  and  long,  and  the  hide 
commands  a  high  price.    It  is  tanned  and  made  into  robes 


230  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

that  are  said  to  be  equal  to  the  buffalo  robes  so  common  a 
half  century  ago. 

The  Galloway  is  a  better  milk  producer  than  some  of  the 
other  breeds  but  not  equal  to  the  Shorthorn. 

Development  of  the  herd.  —  Cows  conforming  to  the  beef 
type  and  a  bull  of  the  breed  desired  are  necessary  for  the 
foundation  herd.  By  employing  the  principles  of  grading 
discussed  in  Chapter  XX,  a  herd  of  good  beef  cattle  may  be 
gradually  developed. 

Feed  lots  and  buildings.  —  Beef  cattle  need  little  protection 
from  cold,  but  require  dry  and  comfortable  quarters  in  which 
to  lie.  Muddy  or  frozen  ground  compels  the-  animals  to 
stand,  thereby  enforcing  an  expenditure  of  some  of  the  energy 
derived  from  feed  that  might  otherwise  produce  flesh.  A 
feed  lot  with  a  southern  exposure,  provided  with  a  shelter 
from  rains  and  winds,  meets  the  ordinary  requirements.  A 
covered  feed  lot  not  only  gives  good  protection  to  cattle  but 
has  the  added  advantage  of  preserving  the  fertilizing  value  of 
manure. 

Feeding  and  management.  —  In  applying  the  principles  of 
feeding  already  considered  to  raising  beef  cattle,  the  question 
of  economy  is  of  especial  importance.  Economy  in  feeding 
can  usually  be  best  attained  by  the  use  of  pasture  and  leg- 
uminous forage,  in  summer,  and  roughage  with  some  grain 
and  leguminous  hay,  in  winter.  But  in  the  final  or  finishing 
period  a  liberal  amount  of  grain  balanced  with  leguminous 
hay  must  be  used.  If  the  finishing  period  begins  in  the  spring 
when  there  is  good  pasture,  the  grain  ration  can  be  much 
reduced,  and  the  cost  of  finishing  thereby  diminished. 

Aside  from  supplying  feed  or  pasture,  water  and  salt,  it 
requires  perhaps  less  attention  to  raise  beef  cattle  than  other 
farm  animals. 


PRODUCTION  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  231 

Marketing.  —  A  glance  at  the  market  quotations  of  a 
cattle  market  will  show  a  wide  difference  in  the  prices  of  the 
various  grades.  The  following  reproduction  of  part  of  a 
daily  market  report  will  illustrate  this  point: 

KILLING   STEERS 

Extra  good,  1,300  Ibs.  up $13. 75  @  $14.00 

Good  to  choice,  1,250  Ibs.  up 13.00  @  13.50 

Common  to  medium,  1,250  Ibs.  up 12.25  @  13.00 

Good  to  choice,  i, i oo  to  1,200  Ibs 11.75  @  I2-5o 

Common  to  medium,  1,1  oo  to  1,200  Ibs 11.25  @  IX.75 

Good  to  choice,  i ,000  to  1,100  Ibs n .  25  @  n .  75 

Common  to  medium,  1,000  to  1,100  Ibs 10. 50  @  n .  25 

Fair  to  good,  under  1,000  Ibs 10.00  @  11.00 

Good  to  choice  yearlings n .  50  @  12 . 75 

STOCKERS   AND   FEEDING  CATTLE 

Good  to  choice  steers,  800  Ibs.  up $10.00  @  $11 .00 

Common  to  fair  steers,  800  Ibs.  up 9.00  @  10.00 

Good  to  choice  steers,  under  800  Ibs 9 . 50  @  10 .  oo 

Common  to  fair  steers,  under  800  Ibs 8.00  @  9.00 

Medium  to  good  heifers 7.00  @  8.00 

Medium  to  good  cows 6 .  oo  @  7.00 

Good  to  choice  milkers no.oo  @  135 .00 

Fair  to  medium  milkers 75 .  oo  @  100 .  oo 

Stock  calves,  250  to  400  Ibs 7.00  @  10.  50 

Springers 7. 50  @  9. 50 

Young  animals,  well  finished  but  not  too  fat,  and  weighing 
from  1200  to  1400  pounds,  meet  the  market  demand  for  the 
better  grades.  The  essential  features  determining  a  high- 
class  beef  animal,  from  the  market  standpoint,  as  presented 
in  an  earlier  paragraph  of  this  chapter  should  be  referred  to 
in  this  connection. 

To  secure  the  best  return  cattle  should  reach  the  market 
well  finished  after  a  short  feeding  period.  A  long  feeding 
period  is  not  only  expensive,  but,  owing  to  the  large  amount 
of  fat  accumulated,  the  cattle  do  not  always  find  favor  on  the 
market. 

Feeders —  Reference  has  already  been  made  in  Chapter 
XX  to  the  production  of  beef  by  the  use  of  feeders.  The 


232  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

discussion  and  illustrations  should  be  reviewed  at  this  point. 
It  is  a  common  practice  of  the  farmers  of  the  Corn  Belt  to 
buy  range  cattle  at  the  large  cattle  markets,  for  use  as  feeders. 
When  such  cattle  are  bought  they  are  full  grown  but  thin. 
After  a  few  months  of  feeding  on  hay  and  grain  they  are  ready 
for  the  market.  There  are  many  systems  of  feeding,  but  they 
all  make  an  application  of  the  principles  of  feeding  presented 
in  Chapter  XX. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
MILK  PRODUCTION 

DAIRY  farming  differs  from  other  kinds  of  farming  devoted 
to  live-stock  production,  because  the  product  as  well  as  the 
animals  producing  it  must  be  considered.  Milk,  butter  and 
cheese  will  always  be  in  great  demand  for  they  are  almost 
indispensable  foods.  As  the  population  of  town  and  city 
increases  the  demand,  the  output  of  these  products  is  likely 
to  increase  also.  Since  a  steady  market  seems  to  be  assured, 
the  question  of  whether  or  not  to  produce  milk  for  sale  will 
depend  upon  other  factors;  of  these  the  two  most  important 
are  a  means  of  disposing  of  the  products,  and  a  means  of 
securing  and  utilizing  labor. 

Market  and  shipping  facilities.  —  Milk  and  cream  are 
highly  perishable  products;  therefore,  a  location  close  to 
shipping  points  or  to  creameries  is  a  first  essential  to  success. 
On  farms  remote  from  a  means  of  disposal  the  production  of 
milk  for  sale  is  not  a  feasible  farm  enterprise. 

Labor.  —  Labor  is  an  important  item  in  milk  production. 
Although  it  is  not  fully  employed  it  must  be  regular.  It 
has  been  estimated  that  one  man's  labor  is  required  for  each 
twelve  to  fourteen  cows.  The  size  of  the  herd  must  depend 
therefore  upon  the  help  available.  Since  labor  in  milk  pro- 
duction is  only  partly  employed  each  day,  and  less  is 
required  in  summer  than  in  winter,  some  provision  must  be 
made  to  keep  it  fully  employed. 

233 


234  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

To  utilize  this  labor  surplus  to  the  best  advantage  is  a 
problem  of  farm  management  permitting  many  solutions. 
The  aim,  however,  is  always  the  same  —  to  secure  the  greatest 
net  return  from  the  entire  farm.  Many  general  or  small 
dairy  farmers  use  the  surplus  labor  to  produce  feed  needed 
for  the  stock  and  also  to  produce  one  or  more  cash  crops  to 
add  to  the  farm  income. 

The  difficulty  of  securing  labor  and  using  it  to  the  best 
advantage  is  one  of  the  greatest  drawbacks  to  dairy  farming 
and  accounts,  in  part,  for  the  small  number  of  strictly  dairy 


Diagram  of  three  aspects  of  a  dairy  cow,  each 
of  which  presents  a  wedge-shaped  outline. 

A.  As  viewed  from  front. 

B.  As  viewed  from  behind. 

C.  As  viewed  from  side. 

farms  —  only  about  six  per  cent  of  all  the  farms  in  the  entire 
country.  Most  of  the  dairy  products  are  produced  on  those 
farms  where  small  herds  of  cows  are  kept,  and  where  most 
of  the  income  is  derived  from  other  sources.  These  small 
herds  are  fed  largely  upon  crop  residue  and  other  low-cost 
feeds,  and  only  home  labor  is  employed.  The  return,  al- 
though small,  is  almost  clear  gain  and  means  so  much  added 
income. 

Principles  of  milk  production.  —  How  to  produce  dairy 
products  with  the  greatest  profit  is  a  problem  of  interest 
to  the  dairyman  and  also  to  every  farmer  who  keeps  cows. 


An  example  of  improvement  of  dairy  cows  by  grading. 

A.  Scrub  cow.    Best  record,  4588.4  Ibs.  milk,*  and  210.67  Ibs.  of  fat. 

B.  Holstein  X  scrub  cow,  first  cross,  daughter  of  scrub  shown  in  A.  Four 
year  old  record,  6822.8  Ibs  milk,  and  283.75  Ibs.  fat,  an  increase  of  49  per 
cent  in  milk,  41  per  cent  in  fat,  and  $22.38  in  profit  over  dam's  best  record. 

C.  Second  generation  Holstein  grade  heifer  calf,  daughter  of  cow  shown  in 
B.   Not  until  the  second  generation  do  most  Holstein  grades  show  white 
markings  typical  of  pure  breds  (Iowa  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 


236  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

This  problem  will  be  considered  by  taking  up  each  aspect 
separately:  first,  the  dairy  herd;  second,  the  handling  and 
care  of  milk. 

THE  DAIRY  HERD 

Experience  has  shown  that  an  economical  production  of 
milk  depends  chiefly  upon  the  kind  of  cows,  their  proper 
feeding,  and  good  management. 

Kind  of  cows  to  keep.  —  The  only  accurate  way  to  find  a 
cow's  value  as  a  milk  producer  is  to  weigh  her  product  at 
each  milking,  and  to  test  the  milk  for  butter  fat  at  intervals, 
using  the  Babcock  test.  From  the  data  secured,  the  value 
of  her  product  may  be  compared  with  the  cost  of  her  feed 
and  care. 

However,  there  are  certain  characteristics  associated  with 
milk  production  that  may  indicate  to  some  extent  whether 
the  animal  is  a  good  or  poor  producer  of  milk.  These 
characteristics,  based  upon  the  physical  requirements 
associated  with  producing  milk,  are  the  digestive  system, 
which  makes  the  feed  ready  to  enter  the  blood;  the  circulatory 
system,  which  distributes  nutrients;  the  respiratory  system, 
which  supplies  oxygen  and  removes  carbon  dioxide  and  other 
gaseous  impurities;  the  udder,  an  organ  which  takes  certain 
material  from  the  blood  and  makes  it  over  into  milk;  and  the 
nervous  system,  which  coordinates  and  regulates  the  work 
of  all  the  various  organs  concerned.  A  good  representative 
of  the  dairy  type  should  show  a  high  degree  of  development 
in  all  these  respects.  In  general,  the  conformation  of  an 
animal  of  the  dairy  type  is  in  every  way  the  reverse  of  that 
of  the  beef  type.  In  the  dairy  type  it  is  desirable  that  the 
feed  should  be  used  mainly  to  produce  milk;  in  the  beef  type, 
to  produce  flesh. 


MILK  PRODUCTION 


237 


The  following  are  the  most  essential  characteristics  of  a 
cow  of  the  dairy  type:  she  should  be  triangular  in  shape,  as 
viewed  from  side,  above  and  in  front;  spare,  long,  lean, 
narrow  of  head  and  neck;  light  in  shoulder  and  sharp  at 


How  a  milk  record  is  kept.  Milk  balances  and  record  sheet  are 
chief  features.  (Adapted  from  Cornell  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station.) 

withers;  broad  in  hindquarters  but  lean  and  spare;  deep  in 
chest,  with  ribs  well  sprung,  wide  apart  and  prominent; 
large  in  abdominal  capacity,  allowing  room  for  well  developed 
digestive  organs;  nervous  in  temperament  —  indicated  by 


PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM   PRACTICE 

spare  and  open  conformation,  absence  of  flesh,  and  prominence 
of  bony  parts ;    she  should  have  a  well-developed  udder  — 
extending   well    forward,    fine,    not  too   firm    or   meaty   in 
texture. 

The  possession  of   all   these   characteristic  points  is   an 
important  indication  of  the  value  of  an  animal  as  a  milk 


Holstein-Friesian  Cow 

producer,  but  should  be  regarded  as  an  indication  only,  and 
should  be  checked  by  an  actual  production  test. 

The  importance  of  emphasizing  a  high  milk  production  in 
dairy  cows  is  not  sufficiently  recognized  by  farmers.  In 
Ohio,  for  example,  according  to  census  figures,  the  average 
production  of  the  dairy  cow  is  about  3500  pounds  of  milk 
annually.  It  requires  approximately  the  value  of  4000  to 
5000  pounds  of  milk  to  pay  for  the  proper  care  and  food  of 
one  cow  for  one  year.  The  figures  for  Ohio  probably  repre- 


MILK  PRODUCTION  239 

sent  the  average  for  the  whole  country.  A  few  years  ago, 
in  Illinois,  a  careful  study  was  made  of  the  production  of 
36  dairy  herds  containing  554  cows.  Of  this  number  the  best 
fourth  yielded  a  profit  of  $31.32  for  each  cow,  while  the 
lowest  fourth  gave  a  return  of  only  77  cents  per  cow.  On 
this  basis,  it  would  take  forty  poor  cows  to  yield  the  same 
profit  as  one  good  one. 
The  foundation  herd  may  be  gradually  improved  by  elimi- 


Ayrshire  Cow 

nating  low-producing  cows  (using  the  Babcock  test  and  milk 
records),  and  by  applying  the  principles  of  grading.  When 
grading  the  herd  a  well-bred  sire  will  make  an  improvement 
even  in  the  first  generation.  The  influence  of  the  sire  is 
illustrated  by  the  following  examples.  A  scrub  cow,  whose 
best  record  was  3534.3  pounds  of  milk  and  190.29  pounds  of 
butter  fat,  produced  a  daughter  with  a  record  of  5137.7 


240  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

pounds  of  milk  and  251.85  pounds  of  butter  fat.  The  sire 
was  a  pure-bred  Holstein.  On  the  other  hand,  a  cow,  yielding 
4916  pounds  of  milk  and  204.91  pounds  of  butter  fat,  pro- 
duced a  daughter  whose  record  was  13  per  cent  less  milk 
and  6  per  cent  less  butter  fat.  In  this  case  the  sire  was  a 
poor  one. 

Breeds  of  dairy  cattle.  —  Among  the  most  important 
breeds  of  dairy  cattle  are  the  Holstein,  Ayrshire,  Jersey, 
and  Guernsey. 

Holstein.  —  The  official  name  of  this  breed  is  Holstein- 
Friesian  but  it  is  commonly  called  Holstein.  It  is  the  largest 
of  the  dairy  breeds.  Its  color  is  always  black  and  white, 
varying  in  proportion  in  different  individuals  from  almost 
pure  white  to  almost  pure  black. 

The  Holstein  ranks  first  in  the  quantity  of  milk  production, 
but  low  in  the  percentage  of  butter  fat.  The  strong  points 
of  the  breed  aside  from  high  milk  yield  are  vigor  of  consti- 
tution, good  disposition,  and  its  value  for  beef  and  veal. 

Ayrshire.  —  This  breed  is  next  to  the  Holstein  in  size. 
An  Ayrshire  may  be  recognized  by  its  red  and  white,  or 
brown  and  white,  spotted  body  and  its  sharp,  erect,  outward, 
upward,  and  backward  curving  horns.  It  is  less  angular  than 
other  dairy  breeds,  having  smoother  shoulders  and  fuller  hind- 
quarters. The  udder  is  said  to  be  the  most  perfect  of  any 
breed,  particularly  the  fore  udder. 

As  a  milk  producer,  the  Ayrshire  is  not  equal  to  the  Hol- 
stein in  quantity  of  milk,  or  the  Jersey  and  Guernsey  in 
percentage  of  butter  fat.  Its  value  for  beef  and  veal  is  about 
equal  to  that  of  the  Holstein. 

Jersey.  —  Individuals  of  this  breed  are  the  smallest  of  the 
dairy  breeds  common  in  this  country.  The  color  ranges  from 
light  fawn  to  dark  gray  or  black,  the  most  common  being 


MILK  PRODUCTION 


241 


Jersey  Cow 


Guernsey  Cow 


242  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

fawn  shading  into  black.  Its  milk  production  is  low  in 
quantity  as  compared  with  the  Holstein,  but  high  in  per- 
centage of  butter  fat.  For  beef  and  veal  it  is  of  little  value. 

The  Jersey  is  sensitive  in  disposition,  becoming  docile 
and  easily  managed  if  treated  gently,  but  the  reverse  if 
abused. 

Guernsey.  —  This  breed  is  similar  to  the  Jersey  in  many 
respects.  It  is  somewhat  larger  and  more  angular.  Its 
colors  tend  toward  reddish  yellow  or  orange  fawn,  with  white 
markings.  The  milk  and  butter  produced  by  Guernseys  have 
a  higher  color  than  that  of  any  other  breed.  In  quantity  of 
milk  and  percentage  of  butter  fat,  this  breed  does  not  differ 
greatly  from  that  of  the  Jersey. 

Dairy  Shorthorn.  — -  A  reference  was  made  in  Chapter  XXII 
to  the  high  rank  of  the  Shorthorn  as  a  milk  producer.  This 
characteristic  of  the  Shorthorn  is  of  especial  advantage 
to  the  farmer  who  keeps  but  few  cows.  Cows  of  this  breed 
will  not  only  supply  sufficient  milk  for  his  needs  but  also 
produce  calves  that  can  be  developed  into  superior  beef 
cattle. 

Feeding  dairy  cattle.  —  The  percentage  of  butter  fat  in  the 
milk  of  each  animal  remains  nearly  constant,  regardless  of 
the  amount  or  character  of  feed  used,  but  a  good  ration  may 
increase  the  percentage  slightly.  The  quantity  of  milk,  on 
the  other  hand,  depends  largely  on  the  ration. 

A  maintenance  ration,  explained  in  Chapter  XX,  is  about 
the  same  for  all  dairy  animals  of  the  same  weight.  But  the 
productive  ration  varies  according  to  the  capacity  of  the 
animal  for  milk  production  —  the  larger  the  capacity  for 
milk  production,  the  greater  the  ration.  The  following  table 
shows  the  nutrients  required  in  a  maintenance  ration  for 
cows  of  various  weights: 


Weight 
600  '  

Protein  (pounds) 
.42 

700.  . 

.49 

800  

.56 

ooo.  . 

•  63 

1000  

.70 

noo              

.  77 

1200.  . 

.84 

MILK  PRODUCTION  243 

Carbohydrates  and 
Fats  (pounds) 

4-34 
5-06 
5-78 
6.50 
7-23 

7-95 
8.67 

The  amount  of  feed  added  to  that  required  for  maintenance 
will  be  used  chiefly  for  the  production  of  milk.  The  extra 
feed  should  be  sufficient  to  keep  the  cow  at  her  fullest  ca- 
pacity of  milk  production.  As  a  guide  to  the  amount  of 
each  nutrient  needed  in  a  productive  ration  is  given  the 
following  table  of  nutrients  required  to  produce  one  pound 
of  the  various  grades  of  milk: 

Butter  fat,  Carbohydrates  and 

per  cent  Protein  (pounds)  Fats  (pounds) 

3 -°4  .224 

3-5 -042  .246 

4 .046  .271 

4-5 -°49  .305 

5 •• .052  .327 

5-5 -°55  -340 

6 .057  .364 

By  using  the  table  it  will  be  easy  to  calculate  the  amount 
of  nutrients  required  to  keep  up  milk  production  and  per- 
centage of  butter  fat,  when  the  percentage  of  butter  fat  and 
the  daily  yield  of  milk  are  known.  The  entire  ration  will 
include  the  nutrients  required  for  both  maintenance  and 
production.  For  example,  if  an  Soo-pound  cow  produces 
30  pounds  of  milk  testing  5.5  per  cent  of  butter  fat,  she  would 


244  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

require  for  maintenance  .56  pounds  of  protein  and  5.78 
pounds  of  carbohydrates  and  fats;  for  production,  1.65 
pound  of  protein  and  10.2  pounds  of  carbohydrates  and  fats. 
By  consulting  the  table  of  nutrients  in  the  appendix  a  se- 
lection of  feeds  may  be  made  that  will  meet  the  requirements 
of  the  ration  as  calculated. 

The  standard  ration  forms  a  good  basis  for  an  intelligent 
feeding  of  dairy  cows.  It  may  have  to  be  modified  somewhat 
to  suit  individual  cows,  as  some  may  require  more,  and  some 
less,  than  the  estimated  amount.  Often  it  is  possible  to 
increase  the  milk  production  of  a  cow  considerably  by  bring- 
ing her  ration  up  to  what  it  ought  to  be.  For  example,  by 
changing  and  standardizing  the  rations  of  a  herd  of  poorly 
fed  cows,  it  was  found  that  the  quantity  of  milk  could  almost 
be  doubled,  while  at  the  same  time  the  condition  of  the  cows 
was  greatly  improved. 

In  making  a  ration  to  conform  to  the  standard  for  dairy 
cows  it  is  necessary  to  keep  in  mind  the  need  of  the  animal 
for  both  roughage  and  concentrates.  Roughage  aids  digestion 
by  lightening  and  distributing  the  concentrates,  which  furnish 
most  of  the  protein  and  considerable  amounts  of  easily  di- 
gested material,  such  as  starch. 

The  most  frequent  mistake  in  feeding  cows  for  milk  pro- 
duction is  a  failure  to  give  them  enough  feed.  This  mistake 
is  often  due  to  allowing  roughage  to  constitute  the  main 
part  of  the  feed.  The  animals  may  seem  satisfied,  but  will 
not  have  a  sufficient  amount  of  nutrients  to  produce  to  their 
full  capacity.  Especially  is  this  the  case  with  the  best  type 
of  dairy  cows.  The  most  profitable  feeding,  when  milk 
production  is  the  object,  is  liberal  feeding. 

Economy  in  feeding  must  also  be  taken  into  consideration; 
that  is,  the  cost  or  value  of  the  feed.  In  other  words,  the 


MILK  PRODUCTION  245 

requirements  of  feeding  for  milk  production,  as  just  set 
forth,  must  be  met  at  the  least  expense. 

In  actual  practice,  summer  and  winter  feeding  present 
separate  problems.  In  summer,  the  bulk  of  the  feed  is  ob- 
tained from  pasture.  But  ordinarily  the  nutrients  obtained 
from  pasture  are  not  enough  for  the  best  milk  production, 
and  they  should  be  supplemented  sufficiently  to  bring  the 
ration  up  to  standard.  The  rations  may  be  standardized  by 
the  addition  of  a  concentrate,  such  as  grain.  The  amount 
added  may  range  from  three  to  ten  pounds,  depending  upon 
the  size  of  the  cow  and  her  milk-yielding  capacity;  for  ex- 
ample, three  pounds  for  a  small  Jersey  cow  producing  twenty 
pounds  of  milk  daily,  or,  ten  pounds  for  a  large  Holstein 
producing  fifty  pounds  of  milk  daily. 

In  winter,  the  cow  must  be  supplied  with  a  palatable,  well- 
balanced  ration.  Mixed  feed,  consisting  of  more  than  one 
kind  of  roughage  including  some  succulent  feed,  such  as 
silage,  and  several  kinds  of  concentrates  will  tend  to  keep 
the  cow  up  to  her  full  productive  capacity. 

Among  all  the  feeds 'best  adapted  for  dairy  cattle,  silage 
has  come  to  be  recognized  as  the  most  important.  It  furnishes 
roughage  and  succulence,  and  approaches  summer  feed.  It 
also  reduces  the  requirement  of  hay  and  grain  in  the  ration. 
For  these  reasons  silage  is  very  desirable  in  all  rations  for 
dairy  cows. 

An  experiment  was  made  at  the  Ohio  State  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  to  determine  "  what  effect  the  feeding 
of  more  silage  than  is  usually  fed  by  dairymen,  with  a  corre- 
sponding reduction  in  the  grain  portion  of  the  ration,  might 
have  upon  the  production  of  milk,  butter  fat,  gain  in  live 
weight,  cost  of  ration,  and  consequent  profit."  Both  rations 
conformed  to  the  same  feeding  standard  with  almost  the 


246  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

same  amount  of  digestible  dry  matter,  but  in  one  the  nutrients 
were  composed  chiefly  of  concentrates;  in  the  other,  of  silage. 
The  silage  consisted  of  one  ton  of  soy  beans  and  cowpeas 
mixed,  to  two  and  one-half  tons  of  silage  corn.  The  cows, 
similar  in  breeds  and  general  condition,  were  divided  into 
two  lots  of  five  each  and  were  fed  the  different  rations.  The 
results  showed  the  cost  of  milk  per  hundred  pounds  to  be 
$.687  with  the  silage  ration,  and  $1.055  with  the  grain  ration. 
The  cost  of  feed,  per  pound  of  butter  fat,  was  13.1  cents  with 
the  silage  ration  and  22.1  cents  with  the  grain  ration.  Other 
experiments  as  well  as  the  experience  of  dairymen  seem  to 
bear  out  the  results  of  this  experiment  and  point  to  the  value 
of  silage  as  a  feed  for  dairy  cows. 

Silage  has  also  been  found  to  be  excellent  feed  for  beef 
cattle.  It  would  seem  well  worth  while  for  the  general  farmer, 
who  feeds  beef  cattle  and  who  also  keeps  a  few  dairy  cows,  to 
make  use  of  the  silo  for  providing  the  greater  part  of  the 
roughage  for  his  feeding. 

Management.  —  It  has  been  suggested  that  since  cows 
reach  their  maximum  production  of  milk  in  early  summer,  the 
conditions  influencing  this  production  should  be  reproduced 
as  far  as  possible  throughout  the  year.  These  conditions  are 
chiefly  an  abundance  of  palatable  and  succulent  feeds,  mod- 
erate temperature,  and  comfortable  surroundings.  The  first 
of  these  will  be  met  by  following  the  plan  for  winter  feed- 
ing presented  in  a  previous  paragraph.  The  heat  from  the 
bodies  of  the  animals,  in  well  enclosed  barns,  will  keep  the 
temperature  from  becoming  too  low  even  in  very  cold 
weather,  but  it  is  also  important  to  have  the  barn  well 
ventilated.  Good  clean  bedding  and  attention  to  cleanli- 
ness will  do  much  to  add  to  the  comfort  of  the  cows.  Fresh 
water  should  be  supplied  in  abundance. 


MILK  PRODUCTION  247 

Regular  attention  is  of  especial  importance.  This  applies 
to  time  of  milking,  time  of  feeding,  period  for  exercise  and 
water  in  the  winter*,  and  for  cleaning  the  stalls.  Cows  should 
not  be  disturbed  when  lying  down  during  the  middle  of  the 
day.  Kind  treatment  should  be  the  invariable  rule.  Dairy 
cows  are  usually  sensitive  and  respond  to  gentle  care  and 
humane  treatment. 


HANDLING  AND  CARE  or  MILK 

Importance  of  clean  milk.  —  The  quantity  of  milk  ob- 
tained is  influenced  by  the  kind  of  cows  kept,  and  by  their 
feeding.  The  quality  of  the  milk  depends  upon  how  it  is 
handled.  Both  quantity  and  quality  must  be  considered  if 
milk  is  to  be  produced  with  profit.  Keeping  milk  clean, 
whether  it  is  used  to  supply  the  farm  home  or  is  sold,  is 
extremely  important.  If  it  is  to  be  sold,  milk  which  has 
been  certified  or  guaranteed  to  be  clean  brings  a  higher 
price.  Dirty  milk  may  not  be  allowed  to  be  sold  at  all. 
The  farmer  should  be  quite  as  careful  with  the  milk  that  is 
used  in  his  own  home  as  he  is  required  to  be  with  that  for 
sale. 

The  reason  for  placing  so  much  emphasis  upon  the  cleanli- 
ness of  milk  lies  in  the  injurious  effects  that  are  known  to 
follow  the  use  of  impure  milk.  Dirt  is  a  source  of  real  danger 
because  of  the  bacteria  that  are  always  associated  with  it. 
It  is  now  well  known  that  impure  milk  is  the  cause  of  many 
digestive  disorders,  especially  in  children.  Besides,  other 
more  serious  diseases,  such  as  typhoid  fever  and  diphtheria, 
have  been  traced  to  a  milk  supply  that  was  infected  through 
the  ignorance  or  carelessness  of  someone  handling  the  milk. 
The  effects  of  impure  milk  are  regarded  as  being  so  dangerous 


248  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

to  health  that  the  sale  of  milk  is  regulated  in  most  cities.  If 
impure  milk  is  dangerous  to  people  living  in  cities  it  is  no  less 
dangerous  to  those  living  in  villages  or  upon  farms. 

How  impurities  get  into  milk.  —  Milk  may  receive  im- 
purities at  every  stage  of  handling  from  the  moment  it  is 
drawn  until  used  by  the  consumer.  Particles  of  dirt  and 
bacteria  may  get  into  the  milk  from  the  cow,  during  the 
movements  of  milking;  from  the  dust  of  the  stable  or  milk 
yard;  from  the  hands  and  clothing  of  the  milker;  and  from 
the  milk  pail  or  other  containers  if  not  thoroughly  clean. 
The  milk  from  cows  suffering  from  udder  troubles  of  any  kind, 
or  from  those  that  give  bloody  or  ropy  milk,  should  not  be 
used  as  food  until  the  cows  are  cured. 

Much  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  body  of  the  cow 
clean:  First,  the  cow  should  be  thoroughly  groomed  to  re- 
move loose  hairs  and  dirt  that  might  fall  into  the  milk  pail 
(grooming  should  take  place  long  enough  before  milking 
time  to  allow  the  dust  to  settle);  second,  the  udder  and 
flanks  should  be  wiped  with  a  damp  cloth,  just  before  milk- 
ing, to  remove  loose*  dirt  and  hairs.  The  need  for  this  practice 
is  emphasized  by  the  following  test  made  by  the  Illinois 
State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station:  Sixty  trials  were 
made  at  different  seasons  of  the  year.  "  With  udders  that 
were  apparently  clean  it  was  found  that  an  average  of  three 
and  one-half  times  as  much  dirt  fell  from  unwashed  udders 
as  after  they  were  washed.  With  soiled  udders  the  average 
was  twenty- two  times  and  with  muddy  udders  the  average 
was  ninety-four  times  as  much  dirt  from  the  unwashed 
udders  as  from  the  same  udders  after  washing." 

The  stable.  —  The  stable  should  be  kept  as  clean  as  possible 
in  all  respects,  should  have  plenty  of  well  distributed  light 
and  good  ventilation.  Smooth  walls  and  ceilings,  water- 


MILK  PRODUCTION 


249 


tight,  easily  drained  floors,  manure  gutters,  of  the  right  size 
and  properly  spaced,  are  necessary  to  secure  the  best  condi- 
tions for  cleanliness.  Sunlight  is  a  good  germicide  and 
should  have  access  to  various  parts  of  the  stable.  It  also 
promotes  .the  health  of  the  cows. 

Good  ventilation  is  not  only  important  for  the  welfare  of 
the  cows,  but  also  for  the  purpose  of  removing  odors  that  are 
readily  absorbed  by  the  milk. 

Feeding,  handling  the  bedding,  and  cleaning  the  stable 


Types  of  milk  pails 

A.  Open  pail  allowing  free  access  to  falling 
dirt. 

B  and  C.  So-called  sanitary  pails  designed  to 
reduce  the  amount  of  dirt  falling  into  milk. 

should  be  done  in  time  to  allow  the  dust  to  settle  before 
milking. 

The  milker.  —  The  milker  should  exercise  cleanliness.  His 
hands  should  be  washed  and  carefully  dried  before  milking. 
His  clothes  should  be  free  from  dirt  that  might  be  dislodged 
and  get  into  the  milk.  Some  dairymen  require  the  milkers 
to  wear  clean  white  suits  in  order  that  dirt  may  be  seen 
which  might  otherwise  pass  unnoticed. 


250  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Utensils.  —  The  best  milk  pail  is  one  that  will  allow  the 
least  amount  of  dirt  to  fall  into  the  milk  during  the  milking 
process.  There  are  several  designs  of  small-top  pails  that  are 
good.  Tests  have  shown  that  sixty  per  cent  less  dirt  and 
twenty-five  to  ninety  per  cent  fewer  bacteria  enter  the  milk 
when  proper  pails  are  used.  Besides  having  a  small  top,  the 
milk  pail  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  have  all  the  joints 
perfectly  smooth.  Open  spaces  are  almost  impossible  to 
keep  clean. 

To  clean  milk  pails  and  the  milk  containers  they  should 
first  be  dipped  into  cold  water  to  rinse  off  the  film  of  milk; 
then  washed,  using  a  brush,  with  warm  water  and  washing 
powder;  and  finally  rinsed  with  boiling  water  and,  when  pos- 
sible, sterilized  with  live  steam  or  placed  in  the  sun  to  dry 
where  they  will  be  free  from  dust. 

Cooling  the  milk.  —  Under  conditions  favorable  to  their 
growth  bacteria  multiply  very  rapidly.  Some  reproduce  as 
often  as  every  half-hour.  A  small  number,  at  this  rate, 
would  increase  to  an  enormous  number  in  a  few  hours.  Warm, 
freshly  drawn  milk  affords  ideal  conditions  for  the  rapid 
development  of  bacteria.  For  this  reason  it  is  important  to 
cool  the  milk  as  soon  as  possible  after  it  is  drawn,  and  to 
keep  it  cool.  Various  means  are  employed  for  this  purpose. 
The  best  dairies  use  ice,  but  cold  water  is  also  effective. 
The  container  should  be  set  in  a  tank  of  cold  water,  prefer- 
ably ice  water,  and  the  milk  stirred  at  least  every  ten  minutes 
until  the  cooling  process  is  complete;  otherwise  the  center  of 
the  mass  of  milk  will  remain  warm  for  a  long  time. 

Tests  as  to  the  effect  of  cooling  milk  on  its  bacterial  content 
and  on  its  curdling  period  have  demonstrated  the  effective- 
ness of  the  practice  of  keeping  milk  cool.  When  a  sample 
was  kept  at  a  temperature  of  45  degs.  F.,  the  number  of 


MILK  PRODUCTION  251 

bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter  at  the  end  of  twelve  hours  was 
9300,  and  the  milk  curdled  at  the  end  of  75  hours.  When  a 
sample  of  the  same 'kind  of  milk  was  kept  at  80  deg.  F.,  at 
the  end  of  twelve  hours  the  number  of  bacteria  per  cubic 
centimeter  was  55,300,000,  and  the  milk  curdled  in  28  hours. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
SHEEP  PRODUCTION 

THE  advisability  of  producing  sheep  on  a  farm  depends 
upon  the  demands  of  the  market,  the  general  prospects  for 
sheep  production,  and  upon  whether  the  particular  farm 
affords  conditions  favorable  for  the  profitable  production  of 
sheep. 

Market  demands.  —  The  supply  of  lamb  and  mutton  in 
the  United  States  has  been  declining,  while  the  demand, 
particularly  for  lambs,  has  been  growing.  The  demand  for 
wool  is  not  so  constant.  The  Western  sheep  ranges  on 
which  most  of  the  sheep  of  the  country  are  produced  are 
being  reduced  in  area,  with  a  corresponding  decrease  in 
shipments.  It  is  estimated  that  outside  of  the  region  of 
sheep  ranges  the  present  production  may  be  increased  three- 
fold without  interfering  with  other  live-stock  production. 
This  increase  might  be  realized  by  a  better  utilization  of  land 
too  rough  for  cultivation  but  suitable  for  grazing. 

Conditions  favorable  for  profitable  production  of  sheep. — 
Sheep  thrive  best  on  high,  dry  land  but  do  well  on  any  land 
that  is  not  too  low  and  wet.  They  graze  over  wide  areas  and 
feed  upon  a  variety  of  plants,  preferring  short,  fine  grasses  to 
coarser  plants.  If  the  grazing  areas  are  not  large,  forage  crops 
must  be  provided.  Fields  for  forage  crops  should  be  small  or 
subdivided  by  temporary  fences  so  as  to  afford  a  frequent 
change  of  grazing  areas.  This  is  necessary  in  order  to 

252 


SHEEP  PRODUCTION  253 

maintain  the  health  of  the  flock.  The  chief  feeding  require- 
ments are  met  if  frequent  changes  of  good  pastures  and 
grazing  crops  are  provided  for  the  open  season,  and  legumi- 
nous hay  for  the  winter.  Some  grain  is  needed,  especially 
in  the  latter  part  of  winter  just  after  the  lambs  appear. 

The  feeding  requirements  can  be  secured  on  many  farms 
that  contain  hilly  land  not  fully  utilized  for  grazing.  Low- 
priced  land  and  low-priced  feed  furnish  the  best  combination 
for  profitable  sheep  production.  This  applies  both  to  raising 
lambs  and  sheep,  and  to  fattening  feeders. 


Diagram  of  side  of  mutton  showing  position  of  different  cuts. 
Note  amount  of  leg  and  loin. 

Stocking  the  farm.  —  As  indicated  in  a  previous  chapter, 
farm  animals  may  either  be  raised  on  the  farm  or  bought  for 
feeding  purposes.  Either  plan  may  be  followed  in  sheep 
production,  but  the  former,  perhaps,  is  the  most  desirable 
for  most  farms. 

Raising  sheep  on  the  farm.  —  The  kind  of  sheep  to  raise, 
getting  a  start,  equipment,  feeding,  general  care,  and  market- 
ing are  important  matters  to  be  considered  in  raising  sheep 
on  a  farm.  The  kind  of  farm  best  suited  to  profitable  pro- 
duction has  already  been  considered  in  this  chapter.  But 
level  farms  entirely  under  cultivation,  like  the  typical  prairie 
farms  of  Illinois,  have  produced  sheep  profitably  when  com- 
bined with  other  stock  production. 


254  PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM   PRACTICE 

Kind  of  sheep  to  raise.  —  The  selection  of  type  and  breed 
should  take  into  consideration  the  kind  of  pasture  and  feed 
to  be  used,  and  the  system  of  farming  in  which  sheep  raising 
is  to  be  included.  For  example,  if  the  farm  is  very  rough 
and  sparsely  covered  with  grazing  plants,  some  hardy  breed, 
such  as  the  American  Merino  for  wool,  or  the  Cheviot  for 
both  wool  and  mutton,  would  probably  be  the  best  selection. 
If  the  system  of  farming  is  one  in  which  much  grain  is  pro- 
duced and  other  live  stock  raised,  some  breed  of  sheep  that 
could  clean  up  roughage  and  crop  residues,  and  that  would 
fatten  easily  when  fed  grain  would  be  a  good  choice.  The 
Shropshire,  or  some  other  medium-wooled  breed,  would 
answer  this  purpose. 

It  is  usually  wise  to  select  the  same  type  and  breed  already 
being  raised  successfully  in  the  community,  for  there  is  an 
advantage  in  cooperation  among  farmers  to  secure  superior 
breeding  stock. 

The  following  is  a  brief  outline  giving  some  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  common  breeds  of  sheep.  There  are  two  types, 
corresponding  to  dairy  and  beef  types  of  cattle  —  one  being 
valuable  mainly  for  wool  and  the  other  for  mutton. 

Wooled  type.  —  Sheep  of  this  type  are  frequently  referred 
to  as  "  fine  wools  "  to  distinguish  them  from  sheep  of  the 
mutton  type  which  also  produces  wool,  less  valuable  because 
of  its  coarseness.  The  sheep  of  the  fine-wooled  type  are 
probably  descendants  of  the  Spanish  sheep  known  as  Merinos, 
and  "  Merino  "  is  commonly  used  to  designate  this  type. 

The  Merino  is  characterized  by  its  dense  covering  of  very 
finely  crimped  wool,  and  when  shorn,  by  its  angular  body. 
Merinos  in  America  are  of  two  breeds:  American  Merino, 
and  Rambouillet  or  French  Merino. 

American  Merino.  —  Sheep  of  this  breed  are  of  three 
classes,  A,  B,  C.  These  classes  may  be  distinguished  by  the 


SHEEP  PRODUCTION  25$ 

number  of  folds  in  the  skin.  Class  A  is  most  heavily  folded; 
class  B,  less;  and  class  C,  sometimes  called  Delaine  Merino, 
is  nearly  smooth  except  for  folds  around  the  neck.  Sheep 
of  the  C  class  have  coarser  wool  and  larger  bodies  than  those 
of  the  other  two  classes. 
In  weight  and  quality  of  fleece  the  American  Merino  is 


Wool  type  of  sheep.    Rambouillet. 
(U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

not  equalled  by  any  other  breed,  but  as  a  mutton  producer 
it  is  much  inferior  to  mutton  breeds. 

French  Merino  or  Rambouillet.  —  This  breed  was  de- 
veloped in  France  with  the  aim  of  securing  a  breed  both  for 
fine  wool  and  mutton.  It  is  much  larger  than  the  American 
Merino,  but  ranks  lower  in  percentage  of  fleece  to  body 
weight  and  in  fineness  of  wool.  It  fattens  well  and  produces 
a  fair  quality  of  mutton,  but  as  a  mutton  producer  is  not 
equal  to  mutton  breeds. 


256 


PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM   PRACTICE 


Mutton  type.  —  Sheep  of  these  breeds  bear  the  same 
relation  to  those  of  the  wooled  type  as  cattle  of  the  beef  type 
bear  to  those  of  the  dairy  type.  Their  conformation  is  similar 
to  that  of  beef  cattle  —  blocky  with  well  developed  back, 
loin,  and  hindquarters. 

Mutton  breeds  are  of  two  classes,  long-wooled  and  medium- 
wooled.  The  former  includes  the  Leicester,  Cotswold,  and 


Heavy  mutton  type  —  long  wool.    Lincoln  breed. 
(University  of  Illinois.) 

Lincoln;  the  latter,  the  Southdown,  Shropshire,  Oxford, 
Hampshire,  Dorset,  and  Cheviot. 

Long-wooled  breeds.  —  Sheep  of  these  breeds  are  large, 
with  heavy  fleeces  of  long,  coarse  wool.  They  are  adapted 
to  level  regions  and  will  do  well  on  lands  too  low  for  sheep 
of  medium- wooled  breeds.  They  require  for  their  best  de- 
velopment an  abundance  of  feed. 

Medium- wooled  breeds.  —  These  breeds  are  valuable  for 
the  production  of  both  mutton  and  wool,  but  chiefly  for 


SHEEP  PRODUCTION  257 

mutton.  The  breeds  vary  considerably  in  their  capacities  for 
mutton  and  wool  production.  The  Southdown  is  the  smallest 
and  is  regarded  as  the  most  perfect  of  the  mutton  type.  It 
produces  a  good  quality  of  wool,  but  not  a  large  quantity. 
It  is  well  adapted  to  hilly  pastures. 
The  Shropshire  is  medium  in  size  and  in  fleece.  It  com- 


Mutton  type  —  medium  wool.     Shropshire. 
(U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

bines  many  excellent  qualities  and  is  perhaps  the  most  popular 
of  all  the  mutton  breeds  in  America. 

The  Oxford  is  the  largest  representative  of  the  mutton 
type.  It  also  yields  the  heaviest  fleece  among  the  medium- 
wooled  breeds. 

The  Hampshire  is  nearly  as  large  as  the  Oxford.  It  is 
lacking  somewhat  in  the  quality  of  mutton  and  fleece  but 
has  the  ability  to  make  rapid  gains  in  weight,  surpassing 
other  breeds  in  this  respect. 


258  PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM   PRACTICE 

The  Dorset  yields  a  fair  quality  of  mutton  and  a  light 
fleece.  Its  lambs  are  produced  earlier  than  others;  hence  it 
is  valuable  for  raising  spring  lambs  for  an  early  market. 

The  Cheviot  is  an  exceedingly  hardy  breed  and  is  especially 
adapted  for  use  on  rough  grazing  land. 

Making  a  start.  —  The  principles  of  animal  improvement 
as  set  forth  in  Chapter  XX  should  be  kept  in  mind  and 
systematically  carried  out.  Young  ewes  conforming  as 
nearly  as  possible  to  the  type  desired  should  be  secured  for 
the  foundation  stock.  The  ram  should  be  a  good  representa- 
tive of  the  breed  chosen.  In  a  few  years,  through  the  process 
of  grading,  the  foundation  stock  can  be  replaced  by  well- 
bred  animals. 

Equipment.  —  The  most  important  equipment  consists  of 
buildings  and  fences.  Dryness  and  good  ventilation  free 
from  drafts  are  the  main  essentials  to  be  provided  in  a  build- 
ing or  shelter  for  sheep.  Any  building  possessing  these 
essentials  will  be  satisfactory.  Neither  smooth  nor  barbed 
wire  fences  can  be  used  to  advantage  because  of  the  danger 
of  catching  the  wool.  A  woven  wire  fence  is  perhaps  the 
best;  it  not  only  makes  a  safe  enclosure  but  also  affords 
protection  against  dogs. 

Feeding.  —  The  general  plan  for  feeding  sheep  has  already 
been  suggested  in  an  earlier  paragraph.  During  the  grazing 
season  provision  for  good  pasture  is  usually  sufficient.  Dur- 
ing the  winter,  plenty  of  roughage,  including  legumes  of 
some  kind  to  balance  the  ration,  and  a  small  amount  of  grain 
will  meet  the  general  feeding  requirements. 

General  care  and  management.  —  There  are  many  details 
in  the  care  and  management  of  sheep  that  must  be  omitted 
in  this  discussion  for  lack  of  space.  A  few  principles  only 
can  be  presented. 


SHEEP  PRODUCTION  259 

In  summer,  good  grazing  with  frequent  change  of  pasture, 
plenty  of  water  and  shade,  and  access  to  salt  should  be  pro- 
vided. If  lambs  are  kept  over  summer  they  will  need 'to  be 
protected  against  stomach  worms  and  other  internal  para- 
sites. This  may  be  accomplished  by  keeping  the  lambs 
separated  from  the  older  sheep,  in  uninfected  pastures. 

In  winter,  sheep  provide  their  own  protection  against  cold, 
but  must  be  protected  against  wet  and  drafts  by  means  of 
suitable  shelter.  They  also  need  plenty  of  exercise.  If  they 
are  kept  in  a  large,  dry  feed-lot,  they  may  be  compelled  to 
take  sufficient  exercise  by  scattering  rough  feed  over  the  lot. 
When  the  lambs  appear,  in  late  winter  and  early  spring,  they 
must  receive  much  special  care  in  order  to  give  them  a  good 
start  in  life.  Especially  is  it  necessary  to  look  after  weak 
lambs  by  providing  warmth  and  food  until  they  become  strong 
enough  to  take  care  of  themselves. 

Marketing.  —  Experience  seems  to  show  that  the  greatest 
profit  from  sheep  raising  on  the  average  farm  is  realized  by 
having  lambs  ready  for  market  at  three  to  five  months  of 
age.  An  early  marketing  of  lambs  has  these  advantages: 
a  saving  of  feed,  and,  usually,  a  high  selling  price;  in  addition,, 
the  risk  of  loss  by  internal  parasites  during-  the  summer  is 
avoided. 

When  the  early  market  plan  is  followed,  all  the  lambs  are 
sold  except  those  selected  for  addition  to  the  breeding  stock. 
During  the  following  year  the  lambs  which  are  retained  will 
be  ready  to  take  the  place  of  the  least  useful  of  the  older 
ewes.  The  latter  are  then  fattened  and  sold. 

Feeders.  —  Instead  of  raising  sheep  to  feed,  some  farmers 
buy  them, on  the  market,  feed  them  until  in  good  condition 
and  then  sell  them.  Most  of  the  sheep  in  large  markets  come 
from  the  ranges,  as  at  the  Chicago  market.  When  they 


260  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

arrive  at  the  stock-yards  they  are  sorted;  those  in  good 
condition  are  sold  for  mutton,  and  the  rest  are  offered  as 
feeders.  The  feeders  are  divided  into  several  classes  —  feeder 
lambs,  feeder  yearlings,  etc.  Lambs  are  in  greater  demand 
for  feeders,  as  they  can  be  fed  during  the  winter  and  shorn 
in  the  spring  just  before  they  are  ready  for  the  market.  This 
practice  affords  three  possible  means  of  profit;  the  gain  in 
weight  during  the  feeding  period,  the  margin  of  profit  be- 
tween buying  and  selling  price,  and  sale  of  the  wool. 

It  is  seldom  profitable  to  buy  sheep  raised  on  farms  in  the 
central,  southern,  and  eastern  states.  Sheep  coming  from 
these  regions  are  likely  to  be  infested  with  internal  parasites 
and  are  difficult  or  impossible  to  fatten.  Western  sheep,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  rarely  infested  by  parasites.  Their  poor 
condition  is  mainly  due  to  lack  of  finish.  When  put  on  good 
pastures,  or  well  fed,  they  usually  make  rapid  gains. 


CHAPTER  XXV 
HOG  PRODUCTION 

HOG  production,  as  a  farm  enterprise,  depends  for  its 
success  upon  the  prospects  for  continued  market  demand  and 
upon  the  capacity  of  the  particular  farm  to  furnish  sufficient 
grain  and  forage  for  economical  feeding. 

Market  demand.  —  In  normal  times,  pork  consitutes  more 
than  one-half  of  the  meat  produced  in  the  United  States.  It 
is  the  chief  source  of  meat  and  fat  for  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  population.  Before  the  Great  War  (1910-1914)  an 
average  of  900,000,000  pounds  was  exported  annually  after 
home  demands  were  satisfied.  In  1917,  1,417,000,000  pounds 
were  exported.  The  foreign  demand  for  our  pork  will  doubt- 
less continue  much  beyond  the  years  immediately  following 
the  war  period,  while  home  consumption  is  likely  to  increase 
as  the  necessity  for  food  conservation  grows  less. 

Conditions  favorable  to  hog  production.  —  The  hog  re- 
produces more  rapidly  and  gains  weight  at  less  expense 
than  any  other  meat  animal.  But  in  order  to  make  the  most 
of  these  two  characteristics  an  abundance  of  feed  is  neces- 
sary. The  first  essential  for  successful  hog  production  on  a 
farm  is  to  provide  plenty  of  concentrates,  such  as  corn,  for 
feed.  It  is  also  desirable  to  have  some  leguminous  forage 
crop,  such  as  clover,  to  balance  the  ration  and  to  reduce  the 
cost.  Hog  production  should  succeed  on  any  farm  where 
corn  can  be  raised  cheaply.  It  is  significant  that  the  greatest 

261 


262 


PRINCIPLES   OF   FARM   PRACTICE 


hog-producing  states  are  in  the  Corn  Belt.  Hogs  will  do  well 
in  other  states,  but  neither  corn  nor  substitutes  can  be  pro- 
duced as  cheaply  as  in  the  Corn  Belt. 

Stocking  the  farm.  —  Hogs  are  most  frequently  raised  on 
the  farm.  Occasionally  feeders  are  bought  to  be  finished  for 
market.  But  it  is  difficult  to  secure  feeders,  because  it  is 
usually  more  profitable  for  the  owner  himself  to  finish  them 
for  market  than  to  sell  before  they  are  in  market  condition. 

Raising  hogs  on  the  farm.  —  The  chief  factors  to  be  con- 
sidered in  raising  hogs  on  the  farm  are  the  kind  to  raise; 
getting  a  start;  feeding;  general  care;  and  marketing. 

Kinds  of  hogs.  —  There  are  two  types  of  hogs,  the  lard 


Diagram  of  side  of  hog  showing  position  of  various  cuts. 

type  and  the  bacon  type.  At  present  in  the  United  States, 
hogs  are  almost  universally  of  the  lard  type.  The  predomi- 
nance of  lard  hogs  may  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  they 
may  be  produced  more  economically  than  the  same  weight 
of  hogs  of  the  bacon  type  and  have  as  good  market  value. 

Generally,  the  wisest  course  is  to  choose  the  breed  used 
by  successful  hog  raisers  of  the  community  in  which  the 
farm  is  located.  It  is  important,  however,  to  be  informed 
as  to  the  characteristics  and  merits  of  the  common  breeds 
of  each  type.  This  information  is  condensed  in  the  following 
summary : 

Bacon  type.  —  As  the  name  indicates,  hogs  of  this  type 
are  raised  chiefly  for  the  production  of  bacon;  the  side, 


HOG  PRODUCTION 


263 


Bacon  type  of  hog.    Yorkshire.    (U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


Lard  type  of  hog.     Poland  China.     (U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


264  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

therefore,  is  the  important  part  of  the  animal  and  should  be 
well  developed.  Such  a  development  is  found  in  hogs  with 
long,  deep  bodies  and  light  hams.  In  general  appearance, 
bacon  hogs  are  narrow  in  the  back,  long  in  body,  light  in 
shoulder  and  neck,  and  lean  in  flesh.  The  Tamworth  and 
Large  Yorkshire  are  the  best  representatives  of  this  type. 
The  Tamworth  is  red  in  color,  varying  from  light  to  dark. 
It  has  a  long,  level  back,  long  snout,  long  legs,  and  deep  sides. 
The  Yorkshire  is  white;  its  conformation  is  similar  to  the 
Tamworth  except  that  the  back  is  arched  instead  of 
straight. 

Lard  type.  —  The  characteristics  of  this  type  are  a  com- 
pact form,  short  body,  short  wide  neck,  a  broad  back,  deep 
sides,  full  hams,  and  short  legs.  The  common  breeds  are 
Poland  China,  Berkeshire,  Duroc- Jersey,  Chester  White,  and 
Hampshire. 

Poland  China.  — -  An  animal  of  this  breed  presents  all  of 
the  essential  characteristics  of  the  lard  type.  The  chief 
distinguishing  points  are  black  color  with  six  white  markings 
— •  face,  feet,  and  tip  of  tail;  straight  face,  and  drooping  ears. 
It  gains  weight  rapidly,  frequently  weighing  200  pounds  at 
six  months  of  age.  The  size  of  the  litter  is  often  small.  In 
this  respect  the  breed  ranks  low  in  comparison  with  others. 

The  large- type  Poland  China  is  a  strain  of  this  breed  that 
seems  to  be  gaining  favor.  It  is  more  prolific  than  the  stand- 
ard breed,  and  it  is  claimed  by  many  farmers  to  be  superior 
in  other  ways. 

Berkeshire.  —  Hogs  of  this  breed  are  somewhat  larger  than 
Poland  Chinas  but  are  similar  in  some  other  respects.  The 
color  and  markings  are  the  same,  but  the  face  is  sharply 
dished,  and  the  ears  are  erect  or  inclined  forward.  The 
flesh  is  lean  fat  —  small  in  proportion.  For  this  reason  it 


HOG  PRODUCTION 


265 


produces  bacon  of  excellent  quality.    The  Berkeshire  matures 
early  and  gains  weight  economically. 

Duroc- Jersey.  —  'This  breed  is  similar  in  size  to  the  Poland 
China  and  Berkeshire.  The  color  is  cherry  red  but  may 
vary  in  degree  of  intensity.  The  ears  are  drooped,  and  the 
face  slightly  dished.  The  litters  are  generally  larger  than 
those  of  the  Poland  China  or  Berke- 
shire. This  is  an  important  advantage 
of  the  breed  and  accounts  in  part  for 
its  great  popularity.  It  seems  to  equal 
other  breeds  in  its  ability  to  mature 
early  and  to  make  economical  gains  in 
weight. 

Chester  White.  —  In  conformation, 
its  length  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the 
Poland  China  but  its  depth  of  body 
is  less.  Its  color  is  white  and  the  hair 
has  a  tendency  to  be  wavy.  It 
matures  early,  generally  produces 
large  litters,  and  is  an  economical 
feeder,  being  an  especially  good  grazer. 

Hampshire.  —  This  breed  has  been  placed  between  the  lard 
and  bacon  types.  The  flesh  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Berke- 
shire, of  fine  quality,  with  fat  and  lean  well  mixed.  Its  most 
striking  characteristic  is  a  white  belt,  four  to  twelve  inches 
wide,  encircling  the  body  and  including  the  fore  legs,  while  the 
rest  of  the  body  is  black.  Some  individuals  are  entirely  black. 

Getting  a  start.  —  The  foundation  herd  should  be  composed 
of  individuals  that  are  good  representatives  of  the  breed 
desired.  Uniformity  should  be  the  first  consideration. 

Feed  lots  and  shelter.  —  Hogs  should  have  a  chance  to 
keep  healthy.  With  this  end  in  view,  they  should  be  pro- 


Lard  type  of  hog. 
Berkshire  —  profile  of  head. 
(University  of  Illinois.) 


266  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

vided  with  well-drained  lots  not  too  much  shaded,  clean 
water,  and  sanitary  houses  well  lighted  and  ventilated,  which 
should  be  kept  clean  and  purified  with  whitewash  and  dis- 
infectants. 

Feeding.  —  When  applying  the  principles  of  feeding  dis- 
cussed in  a  previous  chapter,  securing  gain  in  weight  eco- 
nomically must  not  be  lost  sight  of.  The  practice  of  feeding 
corn  alone,  so  much  followed  in  the  Corn  Belt,  ignores  the 


Lard  type  of  hog.     Duroc-Jersey.     (U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

need  of  a  well-balanced  ration  and  is  expensive.  The  cost  of 
producing  pork  may  be  lowered  materially  by  using  pasture 
and  forage  crops  to  supplement  grain  feed.  Clover,  alfalfa, 
vetch,  soy  beans,  cowpeas,  rye,  oats,  and  rape  are  excellent 
forage  crops  for  hogs.  When  non-leguminous  crops  are  used 
for  forage,  they  should  be  balanced  by  the  use  of  some  protein 
concentrate,  such  as  tankage.  If  rapid  gains  are  desired,  a 
full  ration  of  grain  should  be  fed  along  with  the  forage;  but 
if  the  greatest  economy  is  to  be  practiced,  the  proportion  of 
grain  is  reduced. 


HOG  PRODUCTION 


267 


Grain  and  other  concentrates  are  usually  fed  by  hand, 
the  amount  of  the^  ration  depending  upon  the  system  of 
feeding  followed.  A  method  of  feeding  now  being  used  with 
success  by  many  farmers  is  to  furnish  the  hogs  with  a  constant 
supply  of  feed  by  means  of  self-feeders.  A  self-feeder  is 
simply  a  container  for  concentrates  such  as  corn,  tankage, 
etc.,  and  is  constructed  so  as  to  allow  the  hog  to  eat  as  often 
and  as  much  as  it  wants.  "  Hogging  down  corn  "  is  another 


Lard  type  of  hog.     Chester  White.     (U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

application  of  the  principle  of  self-feeding.  Two  advantages 
are  claimed  for  the  use  of  self  feeders;  reduction  of  labor,  and 
economy  in  the  use  of  feed.  The  following  summary  of  the 
results  of  some  feeding  trials  makes  clear  the  latter  point : 


Number  of 
pigs 

Method 

A  vrage 
time, 
days 

Average 
daily  gain, 
Pounds 

A  vsrage 
daily  feed 
per  head, 
pounds 

Average  amount 
of  feed  per 
100  pounds  gain, 
pounds 

262  
732  .  . 

hand  fed 
self  fed 

82.2 

68  < 

1.23 
I    02 

5-47 
8  oo 

445 

4-17 

268 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


General  care  and  management.  —  When  hogs  have  clean, 
comfortable  quarters  and  sufficient  feed  of  the  right  kind  at 


Lard  type  of  hog.    Hampshire.    (University  of  Illinois.) 


Judging  pigs.    Boys'  Pig  Club.     (U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

regular  intervals,  their  ordinary  needs  are  met,  and  no  further 
attention  is  necessary. 

When  the  young  pigs  arrive  some  of  them  are  likely  to  be 


HOG  PRODUCTION  269 

lost  or  injured,  particularly  if  the  weather  is  cold.  Such 
losses  may  often  be  prevented  by  providing  each  sow  with  a 
brood  house  and  dry  bedding,  and  by  seeing  that  the  weak 
pigs  are  kept  warm  and  receive  proper  nourishment. 

One  of  the  chief  losses  in  hog  raising  is  caused  by  hog 
cholera,  which  is  responsible  for  90  per  cent  of  all  the  losses 
by  disease.  The  total  yearly  loss  for  the  entire  country  is 
estimated  at  $30,000,000. 

The  danger  of  hog  cholera  and  other  diseases  may  be 
greatly  reduced  by  providing  the  animals  with  clean  water 
and  clean,  well- ventilated,  frequently-disinfected  quarters. 
If  cholera  appears,  all  healthy  animals  should  be  removed 
to  clean  freshly-disinfected  quarters,  and  the  old  quarters 
should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  disinfected;  the  bedding 
and  all  loose  material  likely  to  bear  infection  should  be  burned. 
The  dead  animals  should  be  burned  or  destroyed  by  means 
of  quick  lime,  and  all  places  likely  to  be  infected  should  be 
treated  with  fresh  lime  or  some  other  good  disinfectant. 

Vaccination  seems  to  be  a  good  insurance  against  hog 
cholera,  but  it  is  not  likely  to  be  effective  if  hogs  are  kept 
under  unsanitary  conditions. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
FARM   HORSES 

Importance  of  the  horse  on  the  farm.  —  The  horse  plays 
an  important  part  in  American  farming,  where  efficiency  is 
measured  by  the  production  per  man  instead  of  production 
per  acre  as  in  some  of  the  older  countries.  It  is  estimated 
that  one  horse  properly  directed  will  do  the  work  of  ten  men 
and  at  one-half  the  expense.  The  horse  and  improved  imple- 
ments of  farming  have  had  much  to  do  with  the  wonderful 
agricultural  production  of  America. 

The  automobile,  the  tractor,  the  truck,  and  power  ma- 
chinery are  being  used  more  and  more  by  farmers,  but  much 
of  the  farm  work  will  continue  to  be  done  with  the  aid  of 
horses.  The  present  difficulty,  that  of  securing  farm  labor, 
will  doubtless  increase  the  value  of  the  horse  on  the  farm, 
for  either  machinery  or  horses  will  be  needed  for  power. 

The  number  of  horses  in  the  United  States,  according  to 
the  government  estimate  of  1918,  was  21,563,000.  This 
number  is  1,133,000  greater  than  the  average  for  the  five- 
year  period  (1910-1914),  and  was  maintained  in  spite  of  the 
very  large  shipment  abroad  of  horses  for  army  uses.  The 
lover  of  horses  need  have  no  fear  of  their  extinction.  Doubt- 
less there  will  be  fewer  of  them  seen  attached  to  buggies  and 
carriages  on  city  streets  and  country  roads,  but  they  will  be 
found  on  the  farm  doing  the  work  that  no  other  agent  can 
perform  so  well. 

While  it  would  be  of  considerable  interest  in  our  study  of 

270 


FARM  HORSES  271 

horses  to  take  up  types  and  breeds  in  detail,  it  seems  more 
important  to  confine  our  attention  to  those  that  are  regarded 
as  the  most  useful  on  the  farm,  and  to  the  essential  points  in 
the  care  of  farm  horses,  such  as  housing,  feeding,  and  treat- 
ment. 

Farm  horses.  —  Work  horses  have  been  roughly  classified 
as  belonging  to  four  general  groups,  according  to  the  work  they 
seem  best  adapted  to  perform:  i.  heavy  draft  horses  useful 


Farm  draft  horse.    Side  and  hind  views.    (U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

for  pulling  very  heavy  loads;  2.  medium  and  light  draft, 
lighter  than  the  heavy  draft  yet  capable  of  doing  heavy 
work  (includes  nine-tenths  of  all  farm  horses);  3.  roadsters, 
adapted  for  drawing  light  loads  with  considerable  speed; 
4.  small  horses,  known  as  ponies. 

For  farming  purposes,  only  the  first  and  second  groups 
need  be  considered.  The  roadster  has  largely  given  way  to 
the  automobile,  and  the  pony  is  of  little  value  for  farm  use. 

Whether  heavy  draft  or  light  draft  horses  are  the  most 


272  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

useful  on  the  farm  depends  upon  the  work  to  be  done.  Light 
horses  cover  the  ground  quickly  but  are  unable  to  pull  heavy 
loads,  especially  over  uneven  surfaces  or  up  steep  grades. 
Very  heavy  horses  do  not  work  to  advantage  with  light  loads, 
or  on  soft  ground,  as  in  such  operations  as  harrowing.  The 
fact  that  about  nine-tenths  of  all  farm  horses  are  medium, 
or  light  draft,  is  an  evidence  that  experience  has  shown  this 
size  is  best  for  general  farm  work. 

In  either  case,  size  is  not  as  important  as  the  fact  that 
animals  should  possess  certain  traits  and  characteristics. 
They  should  have  a  gentle  disposition;  should  be  easy  to 
handle,  with  no  bad  habits  such  as  biting,  kicking,  stall 
walking,  fence  jumping  and  the  like;  should  be  sound  — 
free  from  defects  decreasing  efficiency,  such  as  short  wind, 
etc.;  should  be  active  rather  than  sluggish  in  movement; 
should  have  a  good  conformation  (includes,  short  neck, 
shoulders  sloped  sufficiently  to  form  a  good  collar  seat,  broad 
and  prominent  breast,  legs  well  shaped  and  well  placed,  feet 
and  pasterns  sloping  but  neither  stubby  nor  flat,  short  back, 
closely  set  but  with  well-sprung  ribs,  and  well-developed 
hindquarters). 

Housing.  —  Proper  housing  for  horses  should  include  pro- 
vision for  ventilation,  light,  protection  from  cold  and  damp- 
ness, comfortable  stalls,  and  means  for  feeding.  A  provision 
for  good  ventilation  with  freedom  from  drafts  is  the  most 
important  feature  of  a  good  stable.  A  safe  rule  for  ventilation 
is  to  allow  two  cubic  feet  of  air  space  for  each  pound  of  live 
weight.  High  ceilings  furnish  air  space,  save  floor  space,  and 
make  possible  good  ventilation  and  lighting.  Windows  with 
the  sash  hung  near  the  middle  afford  light  and  an  easy  method 
of  ventilation.  Light  should  be  admitted  from  the  rear  or 
side  of  stalls,  not  from  the  front. 


FARM  HORSES  273 

In  winter,  horses  do  better  when  the  stable  is  not  kept  too 
warm;  the  walls,  therefore,  should  not  be  too  tightly  con- 
structed. Tight  walls  not  only  tend  to  promote  too  much 
warmth  in  the  stable,  but  also  cause  a  condensation  of 
moisture  on  the  inside.  Dry  walls,  open  enough  to  allow 
air  to  pass  through  slowly,  are  the  most  satisfactory. 

Stalls  should  be  wide  enough  to  allow  grooming  and  harness- 
ing of  the  horses.  The  partition  walls  should  be  strong.  It 
is  especially  important  to  have  tight  floors  which  should  be 
nearly  level,  with  just  enough  fall  for  drainage.  A  floor  with 
a  greater  fall  than  one  inch  in  six  feet  is  apt  to  put  too  great 
a  strain  upon  the  horse's  legs.  Wood  flooring  is  regarded  as 
the  best  kind  if  properly  constructed.  Cement  floors  are  often 
used  but  they  have  the  disadvantage  of  becoming  slippery. 

The  arrangements  for  feeding  should  take  into  consider- 
ation the  need  for  a  rather  large  box  for  grain,  so  as  to  compel 
the  animal  to  eat  slowly.  A  small  rack  for  hay  will  diminish 
the  chance  of  over-feeding. 

Feeding.  —  A  sharp  distinction  must  be  made  between 
feeding  horses  when  idle  or  at  light  work,  and  when  at  heavy 
work.  In  the  former  case,  a  maintenance  ration  only  is 
needed,  but  additional  feed  must  be  supplied  to  furnish 
energy  for  heavy  work. 

A  standard  ration  for  a  horse  lightly  worked,  per  1000 
pounds  live  weight,  is:  20  pounds  of  dry  matter,  1.5  pounds 
protein,  and  10.4  pounds  of  carbohydrates  and  fats,  which 
gives  a  nutritive  ratio  of  i  :  7.  A  standard  ration  for  a  horse 
heavily  worked  is:  26  pounds  of  dry  matter,  2.5  pounds  of 
protein  and  14.3  pounds  of  carbohydrates,  which  gives  a 
nutritive  ratio  of  i  :  6.  Individual  horses  will  vary  in  their 
feed  requirements,  and  standard  rations  should  be  varied  to 
meet  such  differences. 


274  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Corn  and  oats  are  both  satisfactory  grain  feeds  for  farm 
horses.  Feeding  trials  made  at  the  Agricultural  Experiment 
Stations  of  Ohio,  Missouri,  and  some  other  States  indicate 
that  there  is  both  economy  and  efficiency  in  using  corn.  Oats, 
however,  have  long  been  considered  a  standard  feed  for  horses. 


Farm  chunk.  A  mixed  breed  —  draft  predominating.  Except  for 
too  great  length  of  body,  conformation  good.  (Illinois  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station.) 

The  choice  between  corn  and  oats  perhaps  should  be  based 
upon  relative  costs.  The  practice  followed  by  many  farmers 
of  mixing  the  two  grains  has  the  advantage  of  giving  variety 
to  the  feed,  and  is  thought  to  give  better  results  than  either 
grain  alone.  For  roughage,  mixed  hay  composed  of  timothy 
and  clover  is  very  satisfactory.  The  clover,  because  of  its 
protein  content,  helps  to  balance  the  ration  of  grain  and 


FARM  HORSES  275 

timothy;  the  chief  objection  is  that  it  is  dusty.  If  the  hay 
is  well  shaken  before  it  is  put  into  the  feeding  racks,  this 
objection  will  be  overcome.  The  proportion  of  grain  to  rough- 
age should  be  increased  according  to  the  amount  of  work 
done  by  the  horses  —  the  heavier  the  work,  the  larger  the 
proportion  of  grain. 

Since  the  horse  has  a  relatively  small  stomach,  he  will 
require  feed  several  times  during  the  day.  A  good  authority 
suggests  the  following  methods  for  feeding  work  horses: 
first,  one-fourth  of  the  daily  ration  in  the  morning  some  time 
before  the  horse  is  put  to  hard  work;  another  fourth  at 
noon;  a  third  fourth  at  evening  after  the  horse  has  had  time 
to  rest  and  to  eat  some  hay;  the  final  fourth  just  before 
retiring  time.  In  the  second  method,  the  first  two  feedings 
are  the  same  as  above;  then  after  the  day's  work  is  over  the 
horse  may  be  allowed  to  eat  hay  for  an  hour  or  so,  when  the 
remaining  half  of  the  day's  ration  is  fed.  The  hay  ration 
should  be  given  about  the  same  time  and  in  about  the  same 
proportion  as  the  grain  ration. 

The  proper  watering  of  horses  is  as  important  as  feeding. 
It  is  a  good  practice,  during  the  working  season,  to  let  the 
horse  drink  before  he  is  given  his  morning  meal.  He  will  then 
be  less  likely  to  over-indulge  and  thus  interfere  with  his  di- 
gestion. It  is  a  humane  practice  to  give  the  horse  water  in 
the  middle  of  each  working  period,  when  he  is  doing  hard 
work  in  warm  weather.  After  coming  from  work  he  should 
be  watered  but  should  not  be  given  too  much,  especially  if 
his  body  is  very  warm;  he  should  then  be  fed;  a  thirsty  horse 
does  not  seem  to  relish  his  feed. 

Care  of  farm  horses.  —  When  we  consider  that  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  cost  of  raising  most  farm  crops  is  due  to 
horse  labor,  the  importance  of  taking  good  care  of  work 


276  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

horses  is  apparent.  Besides,  such  faithful  workers  deserve 
good  care  and  good  treatment. 

In  addition  to  housing  and  feeding,  general  treatment, 
driving,  and  grooming  are  essential  matters  relating  to  the 
care  of  farm  horses. 

No  other  farm  animal,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the 
dairy  cow,  responds  so  well  to  kind  treatment  as  the  horse. 
Most  farmers  are  well  aware  of  this  fact.  They  are  very 
careful  in  handling  their  horses  and  do  not  abuse  them  in 
any  way.  But  good  treatment  means  more  than  freedom 
from  abuse.  It  includes  everything  that  makes  for  the 
comfort  of  the  horse  in  his  work,  such  as  the  use  of  well- 
fitting  collars,  bits  that  do  not  injure  his  mouth,  a  careful 
adjustment  of  the  checkrein,  proper  methods  of  hitching  to 
the  load  so  as  to  reduce  draft,  etc. 

In  driving,  a  horse  is  controlled  almost  entirely  by  means 
of  lines  and  bit.  The  horse's  mouth  should  be  kept  sensitive 
so  that  he  may  respond  readily  to  the  slightest  pull  on  the 
lines.  Therefore,  the  lines  should  not  be  violently  jerked  or 
pulled.  A  good  driver  drives  with  "  a  light  touch  ";  he  does 
not  pull  the  lines  except  when  necessary  and  then  just  enough 
to  make  the  horse  understand  what  is  wanted.  It  is  said 
that  there  are  very  few  good  drivers.  The  fault  lies  in  failing 
to  appreciate  the  fact  that  the  lines  and  bit  are  simply  a 
means  of  communication  between  the  driver  and  the  horse. 

A  farm  horse  should  be  groomed  to  keep  the  skin  in  good 
condition.  The  legs  of  the  horse  should  receive  careful 
attention.  They  should  be  rubbed  down  vigorously  after  the 
day's  work,  especially  if  they  are  wet  or  muddy.  Neglect  to 
care  properly  for  the  legs  of  a  horse  may  cause  them  to  be- 
come stiff  or  permanently  injured. 

There  are  many  other  things  that  might  well  be  included 


FARM  HORSES  277 

in  a  discussion  of  the  care  of  farm  horses.  Enough  has  been 
given,  however,  to  furnish  a  basis  for  further  study.  In  most 
communities  there  are  farmers  who  treat  their  horses  properly 
and  who  know  how  to  take  care  of  them.  The  methods  used 
by  those  farmers  will  provide  much  of  value  and  of  interest 
for  the  pupil  who  is  sufficiently  interested  in  horses  to  want 
to  learn. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
POULTRY  RAISING   ON  THE  FARM 

Place  of  poultry  on  the  farm.  —  There  is,  perhaps,  no  other 
class  of  farm  animals  that  will  thrive  under  so  wide  a  variety 
of  conditions  as  poultry.  This  great  adaptability  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  some  poultry  is  raised  on  nearly  every  farm 
in  all  parts  of  the  country.  Their  place  on  the  farm,  as  with 
the  farm  garden  and  farm  orchard,  is  to  supply  the  farm 
home  with  wholesome  food,  and,  perhaps,  to  furnish  a  surplus 
product  for  sale. 

The  attention  required  by  fowls  on  the  farm  is  small  when 
compared  with  the  return  they  give.  The  cost  of  feeding 
may  be  greatly  reduced  by  utilizing  table  scraps,  milk,  grain, 
and  other  wastes,  and  in  addition,  these  articles  are  disposed 
of  to  advantage. 

Kinds  of  poultry.  —  The  term  poultry  includes  chickens, 
turkeys,  guinea  fowls,  ducks,  and  geese,  but  is  used  some- 
times to  refer  to  chickens  only.  Some  agricultural  bulletins 
and  other  publications  bearing  the  title  "  Poultry  "  have 
their  contents  devoted  exclusively  to  chickens.  The  dis- 
cussion of  poultry  in  this  chapter  will  be  confined  mainly  to 
chickens,  since  they  are  of  greatest  importance  and  since  the 
general  principles  relating  to  their  production  will  also  apply 
to  other  kinds  of  poultry.  It  will  be  of  interest,  however,  to 
notice  briefly  some  of  the  feeding  habits  of  each  kind  of 
poultry. 

278 


POULTRY  RAISING  ON  THE  FARM  279 

Chickens  have  a  great  adaptability  to  general  conditions, 
use  a  wide  range  of  feeds,  and  are  able  to  make  good  use  of 
grain  and  other  wastes  of  the  barn  lot  or  kitchen.  They 
feed  also  upon  insects,  certain  kinds  of  weeds,  and  weed  seeds. 

Turkeys  have  a  wider  feeding  range  than  chickens.  They 
forage  almost  entirely  for  themselves,  using  insects  as  their 
main  food  during  their  growing  period.  They  require  grain 
only  when  being  prepared  for  the  market. 

Guinea  fowls  prefer  to  range  in  thickets  and  weed  patches, 
in  this  manner  making  use  of  wastes  not  reached  by  other 
kinds  of  poultry. 

Ducks  and  geese  not  only  utilize  the  wastes  of  the  barn 
lot  but  also  make  use  of  various  pasture  grasses.  For  the 
best  success  in  handling  ducks  and  geese,  access  to  ponds  or 
streams  is  desirable.  Pond  life,  both  plant  and  animal, 
furnishes  a  supply  of  food  that  other  farm  animals  cannot  use. 

RAISING  CHICKENS  ON  THE  FARM 

There  can  hardly  be  any  question  as  to  the  desirability  of 
keeping  chickens  on  the  farm,  at  least  enough  to  supply  the 
needs  of  the  home.  The  main  consideration  is  how  they 
may  be  raised  to  the  best  advantage.  The  same  principles 
must  be  applied  which  are  successful  in  raising  other  farm 
animals.  Careful  attention  should  be  given  to  selection  of 
kinds  to  raise,  feeding,  housing,  hatching,  brooding,  and 
general  care  of  the  flock. 

Kinds  to  raise.  —  Two  means  of  selection  are  employed  in 
establishing  a  flock  of  chickens  on  a  farm.  One  is  to  choose 
a  dependable  breed  of  the  particular  type  desired.  For 
example,  if  egg  production  is  to  be  the  chief  aim  in  keeping 
a  flock,  some  breed  of  the  egg-laying  type,  such  as  the  Leg- 


280 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


horn,  should  be  chosen.  The  other  is  to  select  individuals, 
that  is,  from  the  standpoint  of  vigor  and  constitution,  for 
some  fowls  are  weak  while  others  are  strong. 

Types  and  breeds.  —  There  are  three  types,  each  composed 
of  several  breeds.  A  brief  description  of  these  types  with  a 
mention  of  a  few  well-known  breeds  of  each  type  will  serve 

to  indicate  the  range  of 
selection  open  to  one  who 
wishes  to  establish  a  flock 
of  chickens  on  a  farm. 

Light  or  egg-laying 
type.  —  Poultrymen  often 
refer  to  this  type  as  the 
Mediterranean,  because  it 
originated  in  this  region. 
These  fowls  correspond  to 
the  dairy-type  of  cattle  or 
to  the  wool- type  of  sheep, 
in  the  respect  that  the 
product  rather  than  the 
flesh  is  of  chief  importance. 
They  produce  eggs  abun- 
dantly, but  are  too  light 

for  meat  production.  Individuals  of  this  type  are  small, 
very  active,  good  foragers,  and  poor  sitters.  The  Leghorn  and 
Minorca  are  good  representatives  of  this  type. 

Meat  type.  —  It  is  known  to  poultrymen  as  the  Asiatic 
type,  because  it  originated  in  Asia.  Fowls  of  this  kind  corre- 
spond to  the  meat  types  of  other  animals,  since  their  chief 
value  lies  in  the  production  of  meat.  They  are  heavy,  sluggish 
in  their  movements,  poor  layers,  and  good  sitters.  They 
put  on  flesh  readily  when  well  fed,  but  are  not  inclined  to 


An  example  of  egg-laying  type  of 
poultry.  White  Leghorn  male.  (U.S. 
Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


POULTRY  RAISING  ON  THE  FARM 


281 


do  much  foraging  for  themselves.    The  Brahma  and  Cochin 
are  well-known  breeds. 

General  purpose* type.  —  This  is  now  generally  designated 
as  the  American  type,  because  it  has  been  developed  largely 
in  America.  Fowls  of  this  type  combine  to  a  certain  extent 
both  egg-laying  and  meat-producing  functions.  They  do  not 
produce  as  many  eggs  as 
do  those  of  the  light  type, 
or  develop  into  as  large 
fowls  as  the  meat-produc- 
ing type.  Combining,  as 
they  do,  the  chief  charac- 
teristics of  each  of  the 
other  types,  and  being 
vigorous  and  adaptable, 
they  are  found  on  farms 
more  generally  than  the 
others.  Among  the  best- 
known  breeds  are  the 
Plymouth  Rock,  Wyan- 
dotte,  Orpington,  and 
Rhode  Island  Red. 

Constitution    and    vig- 


General  purpose  type  of  poultry. 
Barred  Plymouth  Rock  male.  (U.S.  Dept. 
of  Agriculture.) 


or.  —  Individuals  of  any 
type  or  breed  may  differ 
greatly.  Some  are  of  low  vitality,  and  others  are  strong  and 
vigorous.  It  is  now  regarded  as  much  more  important  for 
an  individual  to  have  a  strong  constitution  than  to  have  the 
well-marked  characteristics  of  a  particular  breed.  Vigor  and 
strength  of  constitution  have  to  do  with  the  health  and  mor- 
tality of  the  stock,  the  number  of  eggs  produced,  the  percen- 
tage of  eggs  that  will  hatch,  and  the  health  and  develop- 
ment of  the  chicks. 


282 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


Weak  fowls,  or  those  of  low  vitality  may  be  distinguished 
by  one  or  more  of  the  following  characteristics:  long,  thin 
beak  and  head;  long,  thin  neck;  slender  body;  long  thighs 
and  shanks.  Strong  fowls  will  have  these  parts  well  de- 
veloped. A  fowl  of  low  vitality  is  also  likely  to  be  inactive 
and  droopy,  whereas  one  that  is  strong  and  vigorous  will  be 
active  and  alert. 

Improvement.  —  Poultry,  like  other  farm  animals,  varies 


A  contrast  in  constitutional  vigor  in  same  breed.    Barred  Plymouth 

Rock. 

A.  Strong.        B.  Weak. 

(N.  J.  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 

in  the  individual  capacity  for  production.  Pure-bred  poultry, 
of  whatever  type  desired,  can  be  established  without  great 
expense  and  will  usually  prove  more  satisfactory  than  mixed 
breeds.  All  types  and  breeds  have  been  developed  by  poultry- 
men  to  a  high  perfection  for  breeding  purposes.  The  eggs  of 
any  type  or  breed  may  be  obtained  from  such  sources  at 
small  cost,  and  hatched  on  the  farm.  One  cock  and  several 


POULTRY  RAISING  ON   THE   FARM  283 

hens  from  such  a  hatching  will  form  sufficient  foundation 
stock  for  a  pure-bred  flock.  When  the  flock  has  been  es- 
tablished, it  can  be  improved  further  by  selection,  particular 
attention  being  paid  to  vigor  and  constitution. 

Grading  is  another  method  of  improving  a  breed.  It  is 
similar  to  the  method  for  grading  a  herd  of  cattle  described 
in  Chapter  XX.  For  this  method  a  pure-bred  cock  of  the 


Belle  of  Jersey,  a  little  White  Leghorn  hen  which  laid  during  her 
pullet  year  246  eggs  and  which  consumed  40  times  her  own  body 
weight  to  do  this  remarkable  performance.  (N.  J.  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station.) 

desired  type  and  breed  is  necessary.  Grading  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  making  use  of  the  original  stock  of  fowls  on  the 
farm,  but  it  takes  a  longer  time  to  secure  a  pure-bred  flock 
of  the  desired  breed. 

What  to  feed.  —  The  importance  of  proper  attention  to 
feeding  poultry  is  indicated  in  the  following  statement  made 
by  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  Purdue  University 
(Indiana):  "Records  from  commercial  and  farm  flocks  have 
shown  profits  that  are  being  made,  and  when  the  methods 


284 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


of  management  have  been  analyzed,  proper  methods  of  feed- 
ing have  proven  to  be  a  very  important  thing  to  consider 
and  know.  Many  a  farm  flock  has  proven  unprofitable  as 
a  business  proposition  because  of  poor  feeding  methods.  These 
same  flocks  have  become  an  asset  by  simply  changing  and  im- 
proving the  ration  and  the  methods  of  feeding  them." 

The  general  principles  of  feeding  farm  animals  already 
considered  (Chapter  XX)  apply  also  to  feeding  poultry.  In 
applying  these  principles  it  is  necessary  to  keep  in  mind  the 
objectives  in  feeding  poultry.  These  are  growth,  main- 
tenance, production  of  eggs,  and  fattening  or  finishing  for 
market.  The  following  standards  have  been  prepared  as  a 
guide  for  the  first  three  of  these  objectives: 

FEED  REQUIREMENTS  OF  CHICKENS  PER  DAY  FOR  EACH  100  POUNDS 
LIVE  WEIGHT 

(Geneva,  N.  Y.,  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station) 


DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  (pounds) 

Birds 

Protein 

Fat 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Ash 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Growing  chicks: 

First  two  weeks 

2.OO 

0.40 

7.20 

0.50 

i  to  4  .  i 

Two  J;o  four  weeks 

2.  2O 

•50 

6.  20 

.70 

i  to  3  .  4 

Four  to  six  weeks 

2.OO 

.40 

5-60 

.60 

to  3-3 

Six  to  eight  weeks 

i.  60 

.40 

4.90 

•50 

to  3.7 

Eight  to  ten  weeks 

i  .20 

•30 

4.40 

•50 

to  4.  3 

Maintenance  : 

Hen,  5  to  7  Ibs. 

.40 

.20 

2.OO 

.  10 

to  6  .  2 

3  to  5  Ibs. 

•So 

•30 

2-95 

•15 

to  7-4 

Egg  production  : 

Hen,  5  to  8  Ibs. 

•65 

.20 

2.25 

.  20 

to  4.2 

3  to  5  Ibs. 

i  .00 

•35 

3-75 

•30 

to  4.6 

It  should  be  remembered  in  making  use  of  these  standards 
that  some  feeds  are  better  adapted  for  chickens  than  others, 
although  the  amounts  of  digestible  nutrients  may  appear  to 


POULTRY  RAISING  ON  THE  FARM  285 

be  nearly  the  same.  For  example,  cottonseed  meal  contains 
a  large  amount  of%  protein  but  is  digested  with  difficulty; 
dry  alfalfa  feeds  also  are  rich  in  protein  but  have  so  much 
crude  fiber  as  to  impair  digestion. 

In  practice,  proper  nutrients  are  supplied  by  grains,  mash, 
animal  feeds,  minerals,  succulent  feeds,  and  water.  Grains 
supply  energy  for  activity  and  heat,  fat  and  material  for 
yolk  of  egg.  When  scattered  in  litter  the  chickens  are  induced 
to  take  exercise  necessary  for  maintaining  health. 

Mash  is  made  by  mixing  finely  ground  mill  by-products 
such  as  bran  and  shorts  or  middlings  with  animal  products 
such  as  meat  scraps.  It  is  easily  digested  and  supplies  protein 
for  restoring  body  tissue  and  for  the  white  of  the  egg.  The 
amount  of  animal  feed  used  in  mash  may  be  reduced  when 
sufficient  skim  milk  or  buttermilk  can  be  supplied.  One  hun- 
dred pounds  of  milk  are  equivalent  to  about  seven  pounds  of 
50  per  cent  meat  scraps. 

Some  mineral  substance  rich  in  lime  and  phosphates  is  needed 
to  furnish  material  for  bone  development  in  growing  chicks 
and  for  formation  of  shell  of  the  egg.  Grit  has  no  direct 
nutritive  value  but  is  necessary  to  aid  the  fowls  in  grinding 
their  feed.  Sharp  sand  or  "mica  grit"  prepared  from  granite 
is  better  than  limestone  grit  which  is  too  soft. 

Succulent  feeds  are  important  for  their  tonic  effect  and  their 
influence  upon  the  health  of  fowls.  A  small  pasture  of  clover 
or  alfalfa  will  furnish  succulent  feed  except  during  the  colder 
months  of  the  year  when  sprouted  oats,  mangels,  or  cabbage 
may  be  used. 

The  following  ration  for  laying  hens  recommended  by 
Purdue  University  is  a  good  example  of  a  well-balanced 
combination  of  nutrients: 


286  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Grain  Mash 

10  pounds  corn  5  pounds  bran 

10  pounds  wheat  5  pounds  shorts 

5  pounds  oats  3.5  pounds  meat  scraps 

25  pounds  total  13.5  pounds  total 

Economy  may  be  secured  by  varying  the  proportions  of 
this  ration  according  to  market  prices;  for  example,  when 
wheat  is  high  in  price  vary  the  grain  ration  by  using  18  pounds 
of  corn  and  7  pounds  of  oats. 

How  to  feed.  —  Having  considered  the  principles  of  feed- 
ing in  some  detail  it  is  important  to  notice  how  to  feed  poultry 
to  secure  the  best  results.  Two  things  are  to  be  observed; 
the  amount  of  feed  should  be  sufficient  and  the  ingredients 
should  have  the  correct  proportion. 

The  purpose  of  feeding,  age,  and  breed  of  the  individuals 
to  be  fed  determine  the  proportion.  If  the  object  of  feeding 
is  to  prepare  fowls  for  the  market,  a  larger  proportion  of 
carbohydrates  and  fat  in  the  feed  will  be  necessary.  This 
may  be  secured  by  using  more  grain  such  as  corn.  If  the  ob- 
ject of  feeding  is  egg  production  a  large  amount  of  protein  will 
be  needed.  As  to  age,  the  older  the  fowls  the  greater  is  the 
tendency  to  put  on  weight;  consequently  the  proportion  of 
fattening  feeds  such  as  carbohydrates  should  be  reduced 
except  when  finishing  the  fowls  for  market.  Heavy  breeds 
take  on  weight  rapidly;  if  they  are  used  for  egg  production 
the  proportion  of  fat-forming  feed  should  be  lowered. 

When  egg  production  is  the  objective  fowls  should  be 
encouraged  to  eat  as  much  as  they  will.  With  healthy  fowls 
there  should  be  little  difficulty  in  inducing  them  to  consume 
feed  up  to  their  capacity.  The  real  difficulty  is  to  get  them  to 
use  feed  in  the  right  proportion  since  they  seem  to  find  grains 
more  palatable  than  mash. 


POULTRY  RAISING  ON  THE  FARM  287 

The  following  practice  suggested  by  the  poultry  depart- 
ment of  Cornell  University  is  a  good  summary  of  the  essen- 
tials of  how  to  feed  laying  hens:  "The  fowls  should  eat  about 
one-half  as  much  mash  by  weight  as  whole  grain.  Regulate 
the  proportion  of  grain  and  ground  feed  by  giving  a  light  feed- 
ing of  grain  in  the  morning  and  about  all  they  will  consume 
at  the  afternoon  feeding  (in  time  to  find  grain  before  dark). 
In  the  case  of  pullets  or  fowls  in  heavy  laying,  restrict  both 
night  and  morning  feeding  to  induce  heavy  eating  of  mash, 
especially  in  case  of  hens.  This  ration  should  be  supplemented 
with  beets,  cabbage,  sprouted  oats,  green  clover,  or  other 
succulent  feed,  unless  running  on  grass  covered  range.  Grit, 
cracked  oyster  shell,  and  charcoal  should  be  accessible  at  all 
times.  Green  feeds  should  not  be  fed  in  frozen  condition. 
All  feed  and  litter  used  should  be  strictly  sweet,  clean,  and 
free  from  mustiness,  mold,  or  decay.  Serious  losses  frequently 
occur  from  disease,  due  to  fowls  taking  into  their  bodies, 
through  their  intestinal  tract  or  lungs,  the  spores  of 
molds." 

Housing.  —  The  proper  housing  of  poultry  is  often  neg- 
lected. The  prevailing  notion  seems  to  be  that  any  kind  of 
a  shelter  is  good  enough  for  chickens.  This  is  far  from  true, 
for  it  is  quite  essential  that  they  should  have  clean,  dry, 
warm,  well- ventilated  quarters.  Plenty  of  space  should  be 
provided,  the  general  rule  being  four  square  feet  of  floor  space 
for  each  fowl.  A  house  six  by  eight  feet  and  seven  feet  high 
will  be  large  enough  for  twelve  hens.  Several  houses  small 
enough  to  be  readily  moved  are  sometimes  more  desirable 
than  one  large  one.  Plans  and  details  for  construction  of 
various  types  of  poultry  houses  may  be  obtained  from  the 
poultry  department  of  any  state  agricultural  college  or  agricul- 
tural experiment  station. 


288  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Incubation.  —  Whether  natural  or  artificial  means  of 
hatching  are  employed  the  object  is  the  same  —  to  secure  a 
high  percentage  of  vigorous  chicks.  The  first  essential  is  to 
use  eggs  of  strong  hatching  qualities,  that  is,  eggs  produced 
by  active,  vigorous,  carefully- tended  breeding  stock.  Other 
essentials  are  correct  means  for  hatching,  correct  methods  of 
operation,  and  favorable  conditions. 

The  choice  between  natural  and  artificial  means  of  hatch- 
ing depends  upon  several  factors  such  as  personal  preference, 
equipment,  and  size  of  the  flock.  In  some  respects  the  natural 
method  is  superior  —  it  is  nature's  method.  With  a  flock  of 
fifty  or  less  this  method  is  more  economical  than  hatching  by 
means  of  an  incubator.  The  chief  disadvantages  are  lack 
of  control  and  the  uncertainty  of  having  an  adequate  number 
of  sitting  hens  when  wanted,  especially  if  a  large,  early  hatch 
is  desired.  The  chief  advantages  of  the  artificial  method  are 
control  as  to  time  of  hatching,  ability  to  secure  uniform 
conditions  favorable  for  hatching,  and  for  large  flocks,  econ- 
omy. The  chief  disadvantage  is  the  care  and  attention  neces- 
sary for  success.  Where  only  a  small  number  of  chicks  is 
wanted  it  is  sometimes  desirable  to  buy  the  young  chicks 
from  a  commercial  hatchery. 

Natural  incubation.  —  When  applying  to  natural  incubation 
the  essentials  mentioned  in  a  previous  paragraph  they  should 
include  choice  of  the  sitting  hen,  nesting  place,  and  surround- 
ing conditions. 

The  sitter  should  be  chosen  from  general-purpose  breeds 
such  as  Plymouth  Rocks.  Heavy  breeds  such  as  Cochins 
are  too  clumsy,  and  light  breeds  such  as  Leghorns  are  too 
unreliable. 

The  nesting  site  should  be  a  place  where  the  sitting  hen 
will  not  be  disturbed  and  one  which  will  be  easily  accessible 


POULTRY  RAISING  ON  THE  FARM  289 

to  her  as  she  returns  from  feeding.  The  nest  should  con- 
form in  shape  to  tfce  natural  nest  made  by  a  hen  when  she 
steals  away  to  hatch  her  brood.  It  is  an  advantage  to  have 
the  bottom  of  the  nest  made  of  soil  in  order  to  preserve  its 
shape  and  to  supply  a  certain  amount  of  moisture  to  the  air 
surrounding  the  eggs. 

As  a  final  preparation  for  incubation  the  nest  and  hen  should 
be  dusted  with  lice  powder. 

During  the  sitting  period  feed,  water,  and  a  dust  bath  should 
be  accessible  to  the  hen.  At  the  end  of  seven  days  the  eggs 
should  be  candled,  those  containing  dead  germs  and  the  infer- 
tile eggs  should  be  removed.  After  the  chicks  are  from 
twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  old  they  may  be  removed 
to  a  coop. 

Artificial  incubation.  —  The  efficiency  of  an  incubator  de- 
pends largely  upon  maintaining  a  uniform  temperature  at 
the  desired  degree  (103).  Four  requisites  have  been  suggested 
by  Lewis,  of  the  Poultry  Department  of  the  New  Jersey  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station :  "A  sensitive,  well-built  thermo- 
stat; a  simple  but  certain  method  of  transmitting  the  action 
of  the  thermostat  to  the  lamp;  arrangements  for  easy  adjust- 
ments or  regulation;  mechanism  that  will  not  get  out  of  order 
with  use." 

Directions  for  setting  up,  caring  for  and  operating  the  incu- 
bator are  furnished  by  the  makers  of  the  best  types  and  should 
be  carefully  followed. 

Aside  from  following  these  directions  attention  should  be 
given  to  turning  the  eggs,  ventilation,  moisture,  testing, 
and  care  of  the  newly-hatched  chicks. 

In  natural  incubation  the  hen ,  frequently  turns  her  eggs. 
The  object  is  to  change  the  position  of  the  germ  which  rests 
upon  the  top  of  the  yolk,  and  to  increase  the  supply  of  oxygen 


2QO  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

to  the  growing  embryo.  The  following  rule  should  be  ob- 
served (Lewis) :  "Begin  turning  on  the  evening  of  the  third 
day,  continue  this  process  morning  and  evening,  until  the 
evening  of  the  eighteenth  or  nineteenth  day,  or  until  the 
eggs  show  signs  of  pipping.  Then  prepare  the  machine  for 
hatching,  and  do  not  remove  the  tray  for  any  purpose." 

Good  ventilation  is  essential.  A  current  of  air  should 
constantly  move  slowly  through  the  incubator.  As  the  method 
of  ventilation  depends  upon  the  type  of  incubator  it  is  usually 
a  safe  practice  to  follow  the  directions  furnished  with  the 
machine. 

Evaporation  may  be  controlled  by  increasing  the  moisture 
in  the  incubating  room  and  within  the  chamber.  This  may  be 
done  in  several  ways  such  as  by  frequent  sprinkling  of  the 
walls  and  floors  of  the  room,  by  using  moisture  pans  under 
the  egg  trays,  and  by  frequently  sprinkling  the  eggs  with 
warm  water. 

The  eggs  should  be  tested  by  means  of  a  candler  on  the 
seventh  day  for  infertile  eggs,  dead  germs,  germs  adhering 
to  the  shell,  and  cracked  eggs,  and  on  the  fourteenth  day  for 
dead  germs. 

From  the  time  the  eggs  begin  to  pip  the  incubator  should 
be  undisturbed.  At  this  time  the  nursery  tray  should  be  in 
place  to  receive  the  newly  hatched  chicks.  After  hatching 
the  chicks  may  remain  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours 
in  the  nursery  tray,  and  then  be  removed  to  the  brooder. 

Care  of  chicks  after  hatching.  —  If  the  chicks  are  hatched 
in  an  incubator,  a  brooder  must  be  employed  to  take  the  place 
of  the  hen.  Essentially  it  is  a  box  in  which  heat  may  be  main- 
tained and  regulated  in  much  the  same  way  as  in  an  incubator. 

The  brooder  should  be  clean  and  the  floor  covered  with 
fine  sand  over  which  short  cut  clover  or  grass  has  been  scat- 


POULTRY  RAISING  ON  THE  FARM  291 

tered.  The  first  temperature  should  be  98°  to  100°  under 
the  hover.  After  the  second  week  it  may  be  reduced  to  94° 
or  96°,  and  in  the  fourth  week  to  about  85°. 

If  the  chicks  are  hatched  by  a  hen,  the  hen  and  chicks 
should  be  transferred  to  a  brooder  coop  about  sixty  hours 
after  the  hatch.  The  coop  should  confine  the  hen  but  allow 
a  free  range  for  the  chicks.  It  should  be  sheltered  from  the 
wind,  the  floor  raised  slightly,  and  covered  with  sand  to  keep 
it  dry  and  to  aid  in  cleaning. 

Next  to  clean,  comfortable,  well- ventilated  quarters  the 
most  important  factor  in  the  care  of  young  chicks  is  feeding 
to  secure  growth  and  maintain  health  and  vigor.  The  first 
few  weeks  are  a  critical  period.  It  is  then  that  the  greatest 
losses  occur. 

The  Poultry  Department  of  Purdue  University  suggests 
the  following  ration  for  young  chicks: 

Scratch  Grain  Dry  Mash 

6  Ibs.  fine  cracked  corn  2  Ibs.  bran 

4  Ibs.  fine  cracked  wheat  2  Ibs.  shorts 

2  Ibs.  "steel  cut"  oats  f  Ib.  charcoal 

Sour  milk  or  buttermilk  —  all  they  will  drink. 
Green  feed  —  all  they  will  eat. 

Grit  (or  sharp  sand)  and  granulated  bone  before  them  at  all 
times,  hopper  fed. 

"If  milk  is  not  available,  i\  Ibs.  of  fine  beef  scrap  must 
be  added  to  the  mash,  for  rapid  and  vigorous  growth  depends 
very  largely  upon  the  amount  and  kind  of  animal  food  that 
is  fed. 

After  the  second  week  the  above  amounts  of  scratch  grain 
and  mash  should  be  consumed  in  the  same  length  of  time. 
The  ingredients  of  the  above  ration  may  be  varied  to  suit  local 
conditions  and  feed  prices.  If  wheat  and  oats,  as  given  above, 


2Q  2  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

cannot  be  obtained,  a  good  commercial  chick  scratch  grain 
may  be  substituted  or  the  grain  ration  may  be  made  up 
largely  of  corn." 

General  care  of  the  flock.  —  If  the  principles  of  feeding  and 
housing  are  carried  out  little  further  care  will  ordinarily  be 
necessary.  The  farm  provides  a  good  range  in  which  chickens 
may  forage  for  themselves,  and  they  will  also  get  plenty  of 
exercise  in  this  way.  When  confined,  as  may  happen  in 
winter,  they  should  be  compelled  to  take  exercise.  A  good 
way  to  afford  exercise  for  them  is  to  spread  straw  over  the 
ground  in  the  enclosure  and  scatter  grain  through  it,  thereby 
obliging  the  chickens  to  do  a  good  deal  of  hunting  and 
scratching. 

The  health  of  the  flock  is  an  important  matter.  The  first 
essential  is  to  keep  only  those  individuals  showing  vigor  and 
strength  of  constitution.  With  ordinary  care,  that  is,  with 
good  housing,  plenty  of  feed  and  water,  and  proper  exercise, 
vigorous  fowls  are  likely  to  remain  healthy.  They  are, 
however,  sometimes  troubled  by  parasites:  a  little  worm 
that  causes  gapes,  and  body  parasites  —  lice  and  mites. 

The  disease  known  as  gapes  is  caused  by  small  worms  that 
get  into  the  windpipe  of  the  chick.  It  is  often  fatal  to  young 
chicks,  especially  if  they  are  weak.  As  soon  as  the  disease 
appears,  all  the  well  chicks  should  be  removed  to  fresh 
quarters  in  order  to  avoid  infection.  The  chicks  that  are 
affected  may  each  be  treated  separately.  The  worms  may 
be  destroyed  by  inserting  a  drop  of  turpentine  into  the  wind- 
pipe of  the  chick,  by  means  of  a  quill;  or  they  may  be  re- 
moved by  twisting  a  broomstraw  or  loop  of  horsehair  in  the 
windpipe.  The  soil  in  the  region  of  the  infection  should  be 
plowed  or  dug  up  and  then  thoroughly  limed. 

Lice  are  especially  injurious  to  young  chicks  and  may  also 


POULTRY  RAISING  ON  THE  FARM  293 

seriously  affect  older  fowls.  Chicks  infected  with  lice  must 
be  treated  separately.  The  lice  may  be  destroyed  by  greasing 
the  head  and  body  of  the  chick  with  a  mixture  of  lard  and 
kerosene,  or  by  the  use  of  sodium  fluoride.  Dust  baths 
should  be  provided  so  that  the  hens  and  chicks  may  help  to 
destroy  the  lice.  Dust  smothers  the  parasites  by  stopping 
up  their  breathing  pores. 

Mites  trouble  the  fowl  at  night  only.  Keeping  the  housing 
quarters  clean  and  spraying  thoroughly  and  frequently  with 
whitewash  or  with  some  good  insecticide,  so  that  all  the  places 
harboring  the  mites  will  be  reached,  are  effective  means  of 
control. 

After  the  breeding  season  is  over,  the  cocks  should  be  kept 
apart  from  the  hens.  The  egg  production  will  be.  as  good 
but  the  eggs  will  not  be  fertile,  and  an  infertile  egg  has  better 
keeping  qualities  than  a  fertile  one.  So  much  loss  is  oc- 
casioned by  spoiled  eggs  that  every  precaution  should  be 
taken  to  prevent  it.  Infertile  eggs  produced  in  clean  nests 
and  gathered  each  day  are  the  least  likely  to  spoil.  Dealers 
in  eggs  are  now  protecting  themselves  by  candling  all  eggs 
that  are  received,  and  eggs  that  show  evidence  of  spoiling 
are  rejected.  This  loss  generally  falls  upon  the  producer  who 
might  avoid  the  loss  with  a  little  care. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
FARM   MANAGEMENT 

What  is  meant  by  farm  management.  —  There  are  two 
aspects  to  successful  farming:  production,  and  the  disposal 
of  products  (which  includes  other  business  transactions). 
Production  is  based  upon  the  proper  adjustment  of  crops  to 
soil  and  climatic  conditions,  and  upon  a  proper  balance 
between  farm  animals  and  the  feed  supplied  by  the  farm. 
The  principles  underlying  production  have  been  considered 
in  previous  chapters,  especially  in  those  on  Soil  Management, 
Crop  Production  and  in  the  introductory  chapters  on  Farm 
Animals. 

The  business  side  of  farming  includes  a  system  of  organi- 
zation which  correlates  production  with  disposal  of  products, 
and  also  includes  a  system  of  accounting  or  of  keeping  busi- 
ness records  of  receipts  and  expenditures. 

Farm  management  deals  with  both  aspects  of  farming. 
"It  is  not  enough  to  raise  good  crops  or  to  secure  large  ani- 
mal production;  these  must  be  economically  secured.  This 
is  accomplished  only  when  capital  and  labor  are  so  adjusted 
to  existing  conditions  that  maximum  yields  are  obtained  at 
the  lowest  cost.  To  farm  successfully  every  department 
must  be  well  organized  and  must  be  coordinated  with  others. 
Labor  must  be  fully  employed,  capital  must  be  well  utilized, 
both  quantity  and  quality  of  products  must  be  secured  and 
the  products  must  be  well  marketed.  All  these  things  come 

294 


FARM  MANAGEMENT  295 

as  a  result  of  close  attention  to,  and  a  detailed  knowledge  of, 
the  business." 

The  real  test  of  good  farm  management  is  to  provide  a 
fair  income  on  the  capital  invested  and  a  fair  return  as  wages 
to  the  farmer.  The  difference  between  all  the  receipts  and 
all  the  expenses  represents  the  farm  income.  The  labor 
income,  or  farmer's  wage,  is  the  amount  of  the  income  re- 
maining after  deducting  a  reasonable  interest  charge  on  the 
investment,  say  six  per  cent. 

Example: 

Capital  invested $10,000.00 

Interest  at  6  per  cent 600.00 

Receipts $2500 .00 

Expenses 800 .  oo 

Farm  income .$1700.00 

Deduct  6  per  cent  interest 600 .  oo 

Farmer's  wage $1100.00 

Many  farmers  fail  to  secure  more  than  a  small  income  on 
their  investment  and  receive  little  return  in  wages  for  their 
labor.  This  condition  may  result  from  poor  farm  manage- 
ment or  from  the  selection  of  a  kind  of  farming  unsuited  to 
the  particular  farming  region. 

Types  of  farming.  —  When  developing  a  farm  organization, 
the  type  of  farming  best  suited  to  the  locality  in  which  the 
farm  is  located  is  the  first  thing  to  consider.  The  chief  factors 
concerned  are  soil  and  climatic  conditions,  and  market  fa- 
cilities. If  the  kind  of  farming  is  not  adapted  to  the  soil  and 
climate  the  business  is  likely  to  fail,  no  matter  how  well  a 
farm  is  managed.  For  example,  an  attempt  to  raise  hogs  on 
hilly  land  may  not  be  successful,  however  well  the  farm  is 


296 


PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM  PRACTICE 


GAIN 


ALL 


MIXED 


STOCK 


DAIRY 


LOSS 


GRAIN  FARMING 


.2500 


34200 


FARMING 


'///  /A 


FARMING 
1100 

60 


FARMING 
1200  ou 
185  Nil 


managed,  if  there  is  not  enough  level  land  to  raise  corn  and 
other  feed.  On  the  other  hand,  the  same  farm  might  be 
profitable  if  sheep,  which  require  less  intensive  feeding,  were 
used;  or  if  climate  and  soil  were  favorable,  the  farm  might 
be  successfully  devoted  to  fruit  raising.  Level-land  farming 

is    seldom    successful    in    hilly 
regions. 

But  a  farm,  under  the '  best 
management  and  with  a  kind 
of  production  suited  to  soil  and 
climate,  still  may  not  be  made 
profitable,  if  it  is  devoted  to 
perishable  products  and  is  remote 
from  market. 

Adaptation  to  soil  and  cli- 
matic conditions  and  market 
facilities  are  conditions  for  suc- 
cess which  must  be  met  in  each 
of  the  three  types  of  farming: 
crop  farming,  stock  farming,  and 
special  farming. 

Crop  farming. — Crop  farming 
usually  refers  to  that  kind  in 
which  50  per  cent  or  more  of 
the  total  farm  receipts  are  de- 
rived from  the  sale  of  grain  or 
cotton.  The  effect  of  crop  farming  on  soil  fertility  has  already 
been  pointed  out.  From  a  business  standpoint,  also,  it  has 
been  shown  by  reliable  investigation  to  be,  as  a  rule,  less 
profitable  than  stock  farming.  There  are  exceptions  to  this 
rule  in  some  places;  for  instance,  the  great  wheat-growing 
region  of  the  Pacific  Coast.  But  even  here  there  are  many 


Diagram  showing  effect  of  type 
of  farming  on  store  of  plant 
food  in  soil.  Figures  estimated 
on  basis  of  160  acres.  Gain  or 
loss  expressed  in  pounds.  (Adapted 
from  Vivian:  Ohio  State  Agri- 
cultural College.) 


FARM  MANAGEMENT  297 

places  where  grain  farming  might  be  combined  profitably 
with  stock  farming. 

The  business  disadvantage  of  crop  farming,  as  compared 
with  stock  farming,  may  be  seen  by  comparing  the  labor 
income  of  the  two.  A  farm-management  survey  of  273 
farms  in  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Iowa,  showed  the  following 
result:  The  average  labor  income  from  79  crop  farms  was 
$28;  that  from  194  stock  farms  was  $755.  This  difference 
was  exceptionally  great  because  the  price  of  corn  was 
low  during  the  year  Ihe  survey  was  made.  But  an  average 
for  a  series  of  years  will  show  that  the  chances  for  a  large 
labor  income  are  against  the  crop  farmer.  There  are  two 
reasons  for  this:  One  is  the  greater  average  profit  on  crops 
when  fed  to  stock;  the  other,  the  larger  number  of  working 
days  of  the  stock  farmer  as  compared  with  that  of  the  crop 
farmer. 

If  crop  farming  is  followed  from  year  to  year  on  the  same 
farm,  it  is  absolutely  essential  that  the  organic  matter  of 
the  soil  be  kept  up  by  supplying  green  manure  from  such 
plants  as  rye  or  legumes  and  turning  it  under  by  deep  plow- 
ing. Commercial  fertilizers  should  also  be  applied  to  replace 
plant  food  taken  from  the  soil.  Even  then  it  is  not  likely  to 
be  successful  without  application  of  superior  knowledge 
of  the  principles  of  crop  production  and  of  good  farm  man- 
agement. 

On  a  California  farm  where  wheat  followed  wheat  con- 
tinuously, the  yield  was  15.7  bushels  per  acre,  but  where  rye 
was  turned  under  by  deep  plowing  and  followed  by  wheat 
the  yield  was  52.3  bushels. 

If  the  disadvantages,  both  from  the  standpoint  of  soil 
fertility  and  of  actual  profits,  are  so  great  in  crop  farming, 
the  question  arises  as  to  why  so  many  farmers  follow  this 


298  PRINCIPLES  OF   FARM   PRACTICE 

type  of  farming.  One  answer  is  that  they  do  not  know  how 
to  farm  differently.  This  is  hardly  a  fair  answer  although  it 
no  doubt  applies  in  some  cases.  The  real  explanation  is  that 
less  capital  is  required  for  crop  farming  than  for  stock  farm- 
ing. Here  is  an  advantage,  the  only  advantage  perhaps, 
that  may  be  suggested. 

Stock  farming.  —  When  engaged  in  live-stock  farming  the 
farmer  markets  his  crops  largely  through  farm  animals  such 
as  hogs,  sheep,  and  beef  cattle.  This  type  of  farming  has  at 
least  three  advantages:  It  affords  a  means  of  maintaining 
soil  fertility;  gives  a  higher  labor  income;  and  provides  for 
a  good  distribution  of  labor.  The  chief  disadvantages  are 
risk  of  losses  due  to  diseases  of  animals,  and  the  need  of  a 
large  investment. 

There  is  always  a  possibility  of  losing  animals  by  disease, 
as,  for  example,  the  loss  of  hogs  by  cholera.  But  the  risks 
may  be  lessened  by  observing  proper  measures  for  safe- 
guarding the  health  of  animals,  or  by  securing  protection 
through  insurance. 

The  difficulty  of  obtaining  capital  is  not  so  great  as  formerly, 
since  the  operation  of  the  Rural  Credit  Act,  a  national 
banking  law  which  became  effective  in  1916.  It  is  now 
possible  for  a  farmer  to  borrow  money  for  the  purchase  of 
such  things  as  live-stock.  In  many  places  it  is  customary  for 
rural  banks  to  give  accommodation  to  farmers  for  the  purchase 
of  live-stock,  the  loan  being  repaid  when  the  stock  is  sold. 

Special  farming.  —  Special  farming  refers  to  the  kinds  of 
farming  not  included  in  the  other  two  types:  Orcharding, 
gardening,  dairying,  poultry  raising,  are  examples.  Many 
kinds  of  special  farming  are  profitable,  but  generally  require 
especially  favorable  conditions,  such  as  soil  and  climate,  or 
market  advantages.  The  chief  drawback  to  special  farming 


FARM  MANAGEMENT 


299 


is  that  the  profits  are  limited  to  one  kind  of  production.  If 
something  goes  wrong  with  this  production,  it  is  difficult  to 
make  adjustments  so  as  to  prevent  losses.  In  stock  farming, 
on  the  other  hand,  unfavorable  conditions  may  be  met  by 
selling  the  stock  and  relying  tem- 
porarily on  the  sale  of  crops  for  an 
income. 

Diversified  farming.  -  -  While 
one  of  the  preceding  types  is  fol- 
lowed as  a  main  line,  at  the  same 
time  another  type  may  be  em- 
ployed. For  example,  while  dairy- 
ing may  be  the  chief  interest  of 
the  farmer,  he  may  produce  also 
certain  cash  crops,  such  as  pota- 
toes. In  this  way,  his  labor  may 
be  more  fully  utilized,  and  possible 
losses  due  to  unforeseen  circum- 
stances partly  offset.  There  are 
several  combinations  that  seem  to 
be  successful,  such  as  stock  farm- 
ing and  orcharding;  wheat  farming 
and  stock  raising;  cotton  farming 
and  dairying;  etc.  Combinations 
like  these  require  more  attention 
to  organization  and  management 


A 

B 

C 

D 

± 

H 

E 

Plan  of  arrangement  of  fields 
on  a  farm. 

A,  B,  C,  D,  E  Fields. 

F,   G   Feed   lots. 

H.  Farmstead  —  yard,  gar- 
den, orchard,  barn  lot,  etc. 

/.   Lane  leading  to  fields. 

Such  a  plan  may  be  modified 
to  apply  to  farms  of  various 
sizes  and  shapes.  The  essential 
features  are  convenience  to 
fields,  shape  of  fields,  and 
economy  of  fencing. 


than  is  necessary  for  a  single  type,  but  they  offer  greater 
flexibility  or  more  ready  adjustment  to  losses  or  failures 
occasioned  by  unsuspected  conditions,  such  as  an  epidemic 
of  disease,  very  unseasonable  weather,  poor  markets,  etc. 

System  or  organization.  —  Whatever  the  type  of  farming 
followed,  it  should  be  systematized  and  organized,  and  then 


300  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

carefully  managed  so  as  to  carry  out  the  system.  The  or- 
ganization must  take  into  consideration,  first  of  all,  the 
conservation  of  soil  fertility.  For  the  soil  represents  capital 
just  as  much  as  money  invested  in  the  business  does,  and  the 
same  care  should  be  taken  to  maintain  it  as  is  exercised  in 
maintaining  the  cash  capital  invested.  Just  how  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  may  be  kept  up  will  depend  upon  the  application 
of  the  principles  of  soil  management,  already  discussed,  to 
the  type  of  farming  employed. 

In  crop  farming,  it  will  be  by  rotation  of  crops  and  by  the 
use  of  green  manure  and  commercial  fertilizers;  in  stock 
farming,  it  will  be  done  by  making  use  of  barnyard  manure 
and  crop  rotation;  if  it  is  special  farming  devoted  to  plant 
production,  it  will  be  done  by  purchasing  manure  and  com- 
mercial fertilizers.  The  distribution  of  labor  should  be  made 
in  the  right  proportion  over  the  different  crops.  In  stock 
farming,  the  proper  balance  must  be  maintained  between 
crops  for  feed  and  animals  to  be  fed.  Attention  should  be 
given  to  the  quality  as  well  as  to  the  quantity  of  production. 
This  refers  to  the  improvement  of  both  plants  and  animals. 
Good  plants  and  good  animals  are  always  more  profitable 
than  poor  ones.  The  control  of  plant  diseases,  weeds  and 
insects  should  be  included  as  part  of  the  system  where  crops 
are  produced. 

The  principles  underlying  the  various  factors  involved  in 
farm  planning  and  organization  have  been  presented  in  the 
preceding  chapters.  These  principles  must  be  kept  in  mind 
in  working  out  the  details  of  any  system. 

System  of  accounting.  —  As  a  basis  for  successful  organi- 
zation and  management  some  record  of  transactions  involving 
receipts  and  expenditures  must  be  kept.  Other  kinds  of 
business  much  less  complex  than  the  business  of  farming 


FARM  MANAGEMENT  301 

require  detailed  records  of  this  sort.  Every  farmer,  as  mana- 
ger of  his  own  farm,  should  employ  some  system  of  account- 
ing that  will  not  only  keep  him  informed  as  to  his  total  profits 
or  losses  for  the  year,  but  also  as  to  such  details  as  the  cost 
of,  and  the  return  on,  various  phases  of  his  business,  such  as 
individual  crops,  groups  of  farm  animals,  etc.  It  should  tell 
him  whether  or  not  his  cows  are  paying  for  their  board; 
how  much  his  horses  are  costing  him ;  and  whether  his  wheat 
is  more  profitable  than  some  other  crop,  such  as  barley, 
oats,  etc. 

Requirements  of  a  system  of  farm  accounting.  —  The 
farmer  must  usually  be  his  own  bookkeeper.  For  this  reason, 
the  system  he  is  to  use  should  be  simple  enough  to  require 
but  little  of  his  time.  At  the  same  time  it  must  be  accurate 
and  complete  enough  to  keep  him  informed  in  regard  to  the 
essentials  of  his  business. 

The  following  records  will  usually  prove  adequate  for  a 
complete  system  of  farm  accounting:  inventory;  cash  re- 
ceived and  paid  out,  in  totals  and  classified;  bills  owed  to 
others  or  bills  payable;  bills  others  owe  him  or  bills  receiv- 
able; labor  records,  including  horses  and  men;  feed  records; 
production  records.  The  first  two  in  this  list  are  absolutely 
essential  to  give  him  a  correct  interpretation  of  the  farm 
business.  The  others  are  useful  in  locating  profitable  and 
unprofitable  enterprises. 

Inventory.  —  An  inventory  is  simply  a  list,  giving  values 
of  everything  connected  with  the  farm  business.  It  should 
be  taken  at  least  once  a  year,  usually  just  before  the  planting 
season  begins,  in  order  to  show  how  much  has  been  made  or 
lost  during  the  previous  year.  This  refers  only  to  the  farm 
as  a  whole.  It  does  not  tell  what  particular  enterprise  is 
the  most  or  least  profitable.  To  secure  this  information 


302  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

special  records  like  feed,  labor  and  production  records,  are 
necessary. 

The  inventory  should  include  every  item  and  its  value  in 
connection  with  the  farm  business.  Such  materials  as  feed 
should  be  weighed  or  measured  to  secure  accuracy.  In 
practice,  the  entire  farm  may  be  gone  over  systematically 
and  the  various  items  listed.  The  items  on  this  list  may 
then  be  classified  and  entered  on  the  inventory  sheet,  and 
the  value  of  each  written  in.  The  inventory  is  complete 
when  all  the  items  are  entered  and  the  sum  of  their  values 
determined.  The  essential  features  of  an  inventory  are  indi- 
cated in  the  following  example : 

INVENTORY                                1918  1919 

Real  estate  (farm,  etc.) $14,000.00  $14,000.00 

Cattle: 

Dairy 600 .  oo  600 .  oo 

Beef .' 2,000.00  2,200.00 

Horses 1,200.00  1,180.00 

Hogs 600 .00  770 . oo 

Poultry 5°-°°  75 -°° 

Machinery  and  tools 700.00  675.00 

Feed 900.00  1,100.00 

Seed 100.00  150.00 

Other  supplies 75  -°°  60.00 

Cash 300 .00  250 .  oo 

Bills  receivable 500-00  1,200.00 

Total  investment $21,025.00  $22,260.00 

Bills  payable  (deduct) 400-00         

$20,625.00  $22,260.00 

Increase  (profits) 1,635.00 

$22,260.00  $22,260.00 

Cash  record.  —  This  should  include  all  receipts  and  ex- 
penditures. When  money  is  received  or  expended,  the  amount 


FARM   MANAGEMENT  303 

should  be  entered  promptly  so  as  to  avoid  oversight.  The 
best  system  of  cash  accounting  is  one  in  which  two  entries 
are  made  of  each  cash  transaction:  one  in  the  column  for 
totals;  the  other  in  a  column  provided  for  the  enterprise 
concerned.  For  example,  if  $50  is  received  for  a  load  of 
corn,  the  amount,  $50,  will  be  entered  in  the  first  or  total 
column,  and  also  in  the  column  devoted  to  corn. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  cash  records.  They  are  arranged 
in  exactly  the  same  way.  One  is  devoted  to  entries  of  money 
received  and  the  other  to  money  paid  out.  At  regular  inter- 
vals, once  a  week  or  once  a  month,  footings  should  be  made 
of  totals  and  of  each  farm  enterprise  included  in  the  cash 
record.  The  sum  of  all  the  cash  items  entered  in  the  various 
columns  devoted  to  farm  enterprises  should  exactly  corre- 
spond to  the  sum  of  the  total  column.  One  serves  as  a  check 
on  the  other.  If  they  do  not  correspond,  some  mistake  or 
oversight  is  indicated.  The  difference  between  the  total 
sum  expended  and  the  total  sum  received  is  the  cash  balance. 
The  difference  between  the  two  entries,  amount  received  and 
amount  spent  of  a  single  enterprise,  will  indicate  how  the 
enterprise  is  going,  whether  at  a  profit  or  a  loss. 

But  in  order  to  determine  more  accurately  the  gain  or 
loss  of  a  particular  enterprise,  other  records  are  necessary. 
These  records  show  values  other  than  cash  received  or  paid 
out.  For  example,  corn  as  an  enterprise,  should  be  charged 
with  labor  and  credited  with  the  feed  furnished  to  the  live 
stock.  When  all  values  including  cash  are  charged  against, 
or  credited  to,  an  enterprise,  the  difference  between  the  two 
totals  will  be  the  gain  or  loss  of  that  enterprise. 

Records  of  this  kind  may  be  kept  for  the  most  important 
enterprises.  They  will  comprise  two  sets  of  entries,  one  for 
receipts  and  the  other  for  expenditures.  The  receipts  or 


3°4 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


H 

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£ 

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8  :      : 

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CL, 

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8 

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FARM  MANAGEMENT 


305 


credits  will  include  all  products  sold,  an  inventory  of  amount 
on  hand  at  end  of  year,  the  amount  used  for  feed  or  saved 
for  seed,  residue  bf  manure  and  fertilizer,  which  may  be 
estimated  as  remaining  for  the  next  crop. 

Special  farm  record  and  account  books  have  been  pre- 
pared by  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  and  by  various 
State  Agricultural  Colleges.  Those  interested  in  keeping  farm 
records  should  secure  a  copy  of  an  approved  record  book. 

The  expenditures  or  charges  will  include  an  inventory  of 
the  amount  of  the  crop  on  hand  from  previous  year,  manure 
and  fertilizer  from  the  preceding  crop,  manure  and  fertilizer 
applied  to  present  crop,  seed  (if  bought),  and  man  and  horse 
labor.  For  an  accurate  and  complete  cost  account  of  an 
enterprise  such  items  as  the  use  of  buildings,  land,  etc.,  and 
interest  on  all  costs  relating  to  the  enterprise  should  be 
charged.  The  following  example  will  show  how  the  entries 

are  made : 

CORN  RECEIPTS  Cr. 


Nov.    i 

15  T.  fodder  to  cows  (a)  @  8.00 

i  20.00 

"     *5 

looo  bu.  sold,  cash  (b)  @  1.20 

i  200.00 

"     30 

500  bu.  to  cows  (a)  @  i.  20 

600.00 

Dec.  31 

Fertilizer  residue  (estimated) 

40.00 

1960.00 

NOTE  —  a.  Should  appear  also  as  a  charge  in  acct.  with  cows. 
b.  Should  appear  also  in  cash  acct.  as  money  received. 

EXPENDITURES 


CORN 


Dr. 


Dec.  31 

3  T.  fertilizer  (a)  ©35.00 

105.00 

1409  man  hrs.  (6)  @  .35 

493  -rS 

1632  horse  hrs.  (c)  @  .15 

244.80 

8  bu.  seed  (d)  ©5.00 

40.00 

Use  of  land,  interest,  etc. 

300-00 

1182.95 

NOTE.  —  a.  Should  appear  also  in  cash  acct.  as  money  paid  out. 

b.  Should  appear  also  as  credit  item  in  labor  acct. 

c.  Should  appear  also  as  a  credit  item  in  acct.  with  horses. 

d.  Carried  over  from  previous  crop  and  might  have  been  charged  here  as 

inventory. 


306 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


Bills  payable  and  bills  receivable.  —  When  there  are  many 
business  transactions  that  are  not  on  a  cash  basis,  a  record 
of  the  "  bills  I  owe"  and  the  "  bills  owed  me  "  should  be 
kept.  Whenever  a  bill  is  paid,  the  item  in  the  record  should 
be  so  marked.  The  amount  should  be  entered  in  the  cash 
record  at  the  same  time.  The  following  examples  will  show 
the  details  of  making  these  records : 

What  I  owe  —  BILLS  PAYABLE 


Date 

Due 

Paid 

Person 

Amount 

Description 

Jan.  i 
Feb.  2 

Apr.  i 
2  yrs. 

Bank 
J.  Jones 

1000.00 
1500.00 

To  buy  cattle,  6  % 
10  A.  land,  6  % 

What  others  owe  me  —  BILLS  RECEIVABLE 


Date 

Due 

Paid 

Person 

Amount 

Description 

Jan.    i 

"   is 

Mar.  i 
IS 

L.  Smith 
J.  Henry 

i  500  .  oo 
150.00 

Cattle  sold,  6  % 
i  cow,  no  int. 

Labor  records.  —  If  the  amount  of  gain  or  loss  in  a  par- 
ticular enterprise  is  to  be  determined,  a  labor  record  must 
be  kept,  so  that  the  enterprise  may  be  charged  with  the 
labor  expended  upon  it.  The  following  is  a  convenient  form 

of  labor  record: 

LABOR  RECORD — CORN 


Date 

Operation 

Man 
hrs. 

Horse 
hrs. 

Tractor 

hrs. 

Apr.  i 

Plowing:  corn,  30  A.;  field,  3-horse  plow- 

9 

27 

"       2 

«            «         «          «          «          " 

8 

24 

"     3 

«            «         «          «          «          « 

6 

18 

FARM  MANAGEMENT 


307 


Feed  records.  —  If  it  is  desired  to  know  the  cost  of  feeding 
any  kind  of  farm  ^animals,  feed  records  are  necessary.  Such 
records  consist  of  entries  from  time  to  time,  as  at  the  end  of 
each  month,  of  the  amounts  of  each  kind  of  feed  fed  to  a 
particular  group  of  farm  animals.  The  following  example 
will  indicate  how  such  a  record  may  be  kept: 


FEED  RECORD 


Date 

HORSES        HEAD 

HOGS 

H 

BAD 

Corn 

Hay 

Corn 

Tankage 

Ami. 

Price 

Value 

Ami. 

Price 

Value 

Amt. 

Price 

Value 

Amt. 

Price 

Value 

Jan.  31 
Feb.  28 

15  bu. 

.70 

10.50 

2T 

16.00 

32.00 

400 

•  70 

280.00 

iT 

90.00 

go.oo 

Dec.  31 

Production  record.  —  Since  the  value  of  an  animal  is 
largely  determined  by  its  production,  a  record  of  this  pro- 
duction will  indicate  just  how  valuable  the  animal  may  be. 
These  records  are  especially  valuable  in  milk  and  egg  pro- 
duction, for  they  may  show  what  individuals  to  keep  and 
what  ones  to  weed  out,  making  it  possible  to  improve  the 
herd  or  flock.  The  production  record  for  milk  is  a  good 


308  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

illustration.  Milk-record  sheets  may  be  obtained  from  a 
State  Agricultural  College  or  State  Experiment  Station. 
One  may  be  prepared  by  ruling  a  large  sheet  of  strong  paper 
as  indicated  in  figure  of  record  sheet  reproduced  on  page 
237- 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
THE  FARM  HOME 

Living  conditions.  —  The  farm  is  not  merely  a  place  on 
which  to  make  a  living.  It  is,  at  the  same  time,  a  place 
where  the  farmer  and  his  family  live  —  their  home.  Aside 
from  the  personal  family  life  that  fixes  the  character  of  the 
home,  there  are  several  material  essentials,  such  as  con- 
veniences and  comforts,  that  affect  the  lives  of  the  family, 
particularly  of  the  women.  The  farmer's  home  should  possess 
many  of  the  advantages  enjoyed  in  a  city  or  town  home.  It 
should  be  convenient,  comfortable,  sanitary,  and  attractive. 
Farmers  are  sometimes  tempted  to  move  to  a  city  or  town  to 
get  these  things  when  they  may  be  secured  right  on  the  farm. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  an  expenditure  of  the  price  of  a 
city  lot  would  make  a  farm  home  equal  in  attractiveness  to 
a  home  in  the  city.  In  fact  this  has  been  done  on  many 
farms. 

Conveniences.  —  In  the  last  chapter,  attention  was  called 
to  the  value  of  time.  This  applies  quite  as  well  to  the  farmer's 
wife  as  it  does  to  him  or  to  the  help  he  hires.  Home  con- 
veniences have  to  do  with  various  kinds  of  equipment  that 
save  steps  and  time  and  make  the  burden  of  housekeeping 
easier.  This  includes  arrangement  of  rooms  in  the  house, 
running  water,  bathroom  and  toilet,  and  especially  a  kitchen 
with  labor-saving  devices. 

A  rearrangement  of  the  rooms  of  a  house  may  not  always 

3°9 


3io 


PRINCIPLES   OF   FARM   PRACTICE 


be  possible.  But  usually  some  changes  may  be  made  that 
will  make  the  house  more  convenient.  If  a  new  house  is  to 
be  built,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  about  a  convenient  ar- 
rangement. 

Running  water  for  kitchen  and  bathroom  may  be  provided 
without  great  expense  by  the  use  of  a  pressure  tank  located 
in  the  basement  of  the  house.  The  equipment  for  a  water 


\ 

\ 

c    |[    Work  Shelf 

\T 

^\ 
\ 

\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 
^ 

^ 

TV^ 
C 

B=! 

\ft 

v\vvw 

\ 

X 

\ 

r>m<] 
loom 

Rue 

1 

Screened 
Poich 

s 

\ 

S          r 

Sink 
ke 

Kitchen 

-1 

\ 

\ 
\ 
\ 

- 

Scot 

"Pan  Shelf- 

Floor  plan  of  well-arranged  kitchen.     (Adapted  from  cir- 
cular of  Minnesota  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 


system  consists  essentially  of  a  large,  galvanized  iron  tank 
connected  with  the  well  or  cistern  by  pipes,  and  a  force  pump. 
In  the  absence  of  a  bathroom,  sufficient  water  for  use  in  the 
kitchen  may  be  provided  by  using  a  smaller  tank  installed 
above  the  sink;  or  a  small  pump  with  a  cistern  connection 
may  be  installed  at  the  side  of  the  sink.  If  there  is  a  supply 
of  running  water,  a  kitchen  sink  is  possible,  a  feature  that  is 
considered  necessary  in  the  kitchen  of  a  city  home. 

A  good  range,  a  kitchen  cabinet,  built-in  cupboard,  and 


THE  FARM   HOME  311 

a  convenient  arrangement  of  the  entire  equipment  of  the 
kitchen  will  relieve  the  housekeeper  of  many  of  her  burdens. 
The  farmer  himself  has  all  the  labor-saving  machinery  and 
equipment  he  can  secure.  He  is  entirely  justified  in  this,  but 
the  same  reasons  also  justify  providing  his  home  with  labor- 
saving  devices  and  equipment.  It  is  as  important  to  save 
time  and  energy  in  the  home  as  in  the  fields. 

Comforts.  —  A  home  is  not  only  a  place  in  which  to  live 
but  also  one  to  enjoy.  A  comfortable  home  does  not  need  to 
be  one  of  luxury  or  of  elegance.  Simple  furnishing  in  good 
taste  gives  the  most  pleasure  and  greatest  comfort.  Space 
does  not  permit  more  than  a  mention  of  desirable  house 
furnishings. 

Heat,  light,  and  water  are  the  first  essentials  for  a  comfort- 
able home.  Heating  by  means  of  stove,  water  supplied  by 
an  outside  well  or  cistern,  and  light  from  kerosene  lamps  are 
common  in  farm  homes.  Such  an  arrangement  is  an  improve- 
ment over  that  in  pioneer  times  when  the  fireplace,  the 
spring,  and  tallow  candles  furnished  heat,  water  and  light; 
but  it  requires  much  labor  that  might  be  saved  by  supplying 
still  more  modern  conveniences. 

It  is  generally  more  expensive  and  requires  more  work 
to  heat  by  stoves  than  by  a  furnace,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
it  is  less  satisfactory  from  the  standpoint  of  comfort.  A 
well-installed  furnace,  distributing  the  heat  uniformly  through 
the  house,  removes  the  discomfort  and  perhaps  the  danger  of 
passing  from  a  heated  into  an  unheated  room.  Besides 
uniformity  in  heating,  good  ventilation  may  be  secured  at 
the  same  time  by  furnace  heating. 

Lighting  by  means  of  lamps,  while  fairly  satisfactory, 
causes  much  labor  in  the  care  of  the  lamps.  Acetylene  gas 
or  electricity  may  now  be  installed  in  a  farm  home  at  a  reason- 


3I2 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


able  initial  expense.    Afterwards  the  cost  of  lighting  is  slight 
and  the  labor  a  trifle.     An  electric  lighting  system  may  be 


Heating  by  means  of  hot-air  furnace. 
(Minnesota  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 

extended  to  the  barn  and  other  buildings,  used  also  to  furnish 
power   for   pumping   water,    separating   milk,    running    the 


THE   FARM  HOME 


313 


washing  machine,  iron,  sewing  machine,  sweeper  and  other 
purposes.  > 

The  need  of  running  water  for  the  kitchen  has  already 
been  mentioned.    When  a  house  in  a  town  or  city  is  said  to 


Plan  sho\ving  connection  of  house  drain  with  septic  tank 
and  provision  for  overflow  from  septic  tank  into  a  system  of 
open  drains. 

have  modern  improvements,  a  bathroom  and  indoor  toilet 
are  generally  referred  to.  Houses  thus  equipped  are  always 
in  greater  demand  and  command  a  higher  rental  than  others. 
It  is  not  a  difficult  matter  to  provide  these  in  a  farm  home. 
Running  water  and  a 
means  for  disposal  of 
wastes  are  necessary.  The 
same  system  that  furnishes 
water  and  carries  away  the 


Diagram  of  concrete  septic  tank  for 
disposal  of  sewage  from  a  farm  home. 


wastes  from  the  kitchen 
may  be  used  for  the  bath- 
room and  toilet.  A  water 

heater  may  be  attached  either  to  the  kitchen  range  or  to  the 
furnace  and  will  supply  water  not  only  for  the  bathtub  and 
wash  basin,  but  also  for  the  kitchen. 

Sanitation.  —  A  house  should  not  only  be  convenient  and 
comfortable,  but  it  should  be  a  healthful  place  in  which  to 
live.  It  is  well  known  that  many  diseases  are  induced  by 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

germs  or  bacteria.    True  cleanliness  is  the  kind  that  removes 
most  of  the  danger  of  disease  from  germs. 

Source  of  infection  is  not  a  pleasant  subject  to  consider, 
but  it  is  one  on  which  every  one  should  be  informed.  Con- 
tamination from  the  wastes  of  the  human  body  is  a  most 


Plan  of  installation  of  complete  system  for  disposal  of  house- 
hold wastes.  Distance  of  septic  tank  from  house  should  be  at 
least  fifty  feet.  (Cornell  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 

common  source  of  disease.  The  custom  of  placing  outdoor 
toilets  near  wells  is  a  dangerous  one.  The  origin  of  many 
cases  of  typhoid  fever  has  been  traced  to  wells  into  which 
wastes  have  entered  from  toilets. 


THE  FARM  HOME  315 

One  of  the  best  ways  to  dispose  of  these  wastes,  as  well  as 
of  those  from  the  %  kitchen,  is  by  the  use  of  a  septic  tank. 
Sewage  disposal  by  this  means  is  based  upon  the  action  of 
bacteria  on  the  organic  matter  which  always  forms  a  con- 
siderable part  of  household  wastes.  A  simple  form  of  septic 
tank  consists  of  two  water-tight,  underground  chambers; 
the  first  to  retain  solid  matter  and  scum  until  they  are  dis- 
solved, the  second  to  receive  liquids  from  the  first  chamber 
and  discharge  them  at  intervals  by  means  of  a  siphon. 

A  complete  outfit  including  cement  tank,  vitrified  tile  set 
with  closed  joints  to  convey  material  to  the  tank,  and  porous 
tile  set  with  open  joints  to  conduct  the  liquids  away  from 
the  tank,  may  be  installed  at  a  moderate  cost. 

Making  the  home  attractive.  —  A  home  should  afford 
pleasure  to  its  occupants.  First  of  all,  as  already  considered, 
it  should  be  made  comfortable  in  such  essentials  as  heat, 
light,  and  water.  Next,  it  should  be  made  attractive,  both 
as  to  the  house  and  its  setting  and  the  interior  and  furnish- 
ings of  the  house. 

The  site  of  the  farm  home  is  often  selected  solely  because 
of  its  convenience.  Although  convenience,  with  respect  to 
accessibility  to  the  farm  and  to  the  public  highway,  is  im- 
portant, the  healthfulness  and  attractiveness  of  the  site 
should  receive  equal  consideration.  For  sanitary  reasons 
the  building  site .  should  first  of  all  be  well  drained.  Situ- 
ations somewhat  higher  than  surrounding  areas  are  better 
drained  than  those  that  are  low  or  level.  Such  a  situation 
also  makes  an  attractive  setting  for  the  home.  It  enables 
the  house  and  its  surroundings  to  stand  out  prominently  and 
affords  distant  views,  revealing  whatever  beauty  there  may 
be  in  the  surrounding  landscape. 

A  well-chosen  site  is  only  one  part  of  the  setting  of  the 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

farm  home.  The  arrangement  of  the  farm  buildings,  the 
placing  of  the  house,  and  the  presence  of  lawn,  trees,  shrubs, 
and  flowers  all  contribute  to  the  setting.  The  farm  buildings 
should  be  accessible  and  so  placed  as  to  save  steps,  but  they 
should  be  in  the  background,  so  that  they  may  be  screened 


Publi 

A  plan  of  a  farmstead  illustrating  some  features  suggested  in  the  text. 

from  undue  prominence  by  means  of  trees  and  shrubs.  Since 
the  farm  orchard  and  garden  to  be  accessible  must  be  near 
the  yard,  they  may  be  considered  as  part  of  the  setting  of  the 
house.  Careful  attention  should  be  given  to  location  of 
walks,  a  matter  often  neglected  around  farm  homes.  All 
parts  of  the  farmstead  in  frequent  use,  especially  those  near 


THE  FARM  HOME  317 

the  house,  should  be  made  easily  accessible  by  means  of  con- 
venient walks. 

The  yard  is  perhaps  the  most  important  single  feature  of 
an  attractive  setting  for  a  house.  The  house  becomes  the 
center  of  the  picture;  the  lawn,  trees,  shrubs  and  flowers 
form  the  background  and  frame  of  the  yard.  In  making  such 
plans  effective,  three  fundamental  rules  of  landscape  garden- 
ing should  be  applied :  avoid  straight  lines ;  leave  open  spaces ; 
plant  shrubs  and  trees  in  irregular  masses. 

A  home,  to  be  attractive,  need  not  be  one  of  luxury  or  of 
elegance.  Simple  furnishings  that  show  good  taste  and  are 
well  arranged  give  the  most  pleasure  and  the  greatest  comfort. 
Three  easily  applied  principles  need  to  be  observed  in  furnish- 
ing and  arranging  furniture  in  the  rooms  of  a  home. 

First,  each  room  will  have  some  predominating  feature, 
such  as  a  fireplace,  a  rug,  or  piece  of  furniture  that  may  be 
regarded  as  the  center  of  interest.  The  rest  of  the  furnish- 
ings should  be  subordinated  to  this  feature.  For  example, 
if  the  fireplace  is  the  center  of  interest,  the  furnishings  should 
be  so  grouped  and  subordinated  as  to  add  to  the  pleasing 
effects  of  this  feature. 

Second,  there  should  be  symmetry  or  balance  in  placing 
the  furnishings.  For  example,  in  a  living  room  the  fire- 
place with  a  picture  above  the  mantle  may  be  balanced  by 
having  a  davenport,  or  davenport  and  table  placed  opposite. 
A  large  piece  of  furniture  may  be  balanced  by  two  smaller 
pieces. 

Third,  angles  formed  by  one  piece  of  furniture  with  another 
should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible.  The  placing  should 
be  guided  by  the  lines  of  the  room.  For  example,  a  piece  of 
furniture  set  across  the  corner  of  a  room  gives  a  less  pleasing 
effect  than  if  placed  in  a  line  with  the  wall. 


3i8  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

These  three  principles  relate  to  effective  placing  and  group- 
ing of  furnishings.  The  living  room  is  used  merely  as  an  ex- 
ample to  illustrate  the  application  of  these  principles.  They 
may  be  applied  to  other  rooms  as  well.  They  also  apply, 
with  slight  modification,  to  the  placing  and  hanging  of 
pictures. 

Color  combinations  should  also  receive  consideration. 
This  refers  to  floors,  woodwork  and  walls  as  well  as  to  the 
furnishings.  In  general,  the  proper  color  combinations,  or 
values,  should  present  a  gradual  transition  from  the  floor  to 
the  ceiling;  the  floor  should  be  the  darkest,  next,  the  walls 
and  the  ceiling,  the  lightest.  For  example,  a  light  floor  and 
a  dark  rug  would  make  an  unpleasant  contrast.  On  thes 
other  hand,  if  the  floor  is  stained  or  painted  so  as  to  corre- 
spond to  the  depth  of  color  of  the  rug,  the  two  will  present 
a  pleasing  uniformity. 


CHAPTER  XXX 
THE  RURAL  COMMUNITY 

THE  farmer's  first  concern  must  be  to  make  a  living,  so 
most  of  the  preceding  pages  have  been  devoted  to  that  aspect 
of  farm  life  which  has  to  do  with  agriculture  in  its  various 
phases.  But  the  farmer  must  have  a  place  in  which  to  live 
-  a  home,  and  it  should  be  the  best  home  he  can  afford. 
Some  of  the  essentials  of  a  comfortable  farm  home  with 
special  reference  to  ease  in  housekeeping  were  considered  in 
the  last  chapter.  Finally,  the  farmer  must  live  among  other 
people  with  whom  he  has  interests  in  common.  He  has 
neighbors  and  should  have  friends  and  companions.  It 
seems  worthwhile,  therefore,  to  conclude  the  book  with  a 
chapter  devoted  to  the  farmer  and  his  relation  to  others  of 
the  community. 

The  particular  problem  of  each  individual  of  a  rural  com- 
munity is  to  make  the  most  of  the  relations  with  others, 
both  for  the  sake  of  himself  and  his  family  and  of  those  with 
whom  he  may  become  associated.  Moreover,  mere  partici- 
pation in  community  affairs,  while  infinitely  better  than 
selfish  isolation,  is  not  enough.  Each  individual  should 
cooperate  with  others  to  make  his  community  or  neighbor- 
hood a  better  place  in  which  to  live.  Cooperation  means 
getting  together;  living  to  himself,  an  individual  is  apt  to 
be  narrow  and  one-sided  in  his  views;  in  a  group,  he  tends 
to  become  broader  minded  and  to  forget  his  prejudices  in  a 
wider  interest.  Singly,  an  individual's  information  generally 

319 


320  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

comes  to  him  in  fragments,  often  from  a  faction  that  presents 
but  half  the  truth;  collectively,  or  in  a  group  for  discussion, 
each  one  may  hear  all  sides  —  all  the  facts.  Country  people 
need  occasions  for  getting  together  where  affairs  of  common 
interest  may  be  discussed  and  acted  upon. 

To  be  effective  this  cooperative  interest  must  take  into 
consideration  first,  things  as  they  are;  second,  as  they 
should  be;  third,  how  they  might  be  changed  for  the  better. 

Though  many  undesirable  conditions  in  a  rural  community 
may  be  recognized  generally,  they  are  often  accepted  as  a 
matter  of  course.  Nearly  every  one  may  know,  for  ex- 
ample, that  some  roads  are  very  good  and  that  some  are  very 
poor;  that  the  school  is  lacking  in  many  things  actually 
needed ;  that  the  influence  of  the  church  is  less  than  it  should 
be;  that  the  opportunities  for  social  life  are  meager;  that  means 
for  recreation  are  wanting.  If  a  survey  of  the  conditions  in 
any  community  or  neighborhood  shows  defects,  two  courses 
are  open  —  to  let  conditions  remain  as  they  are,  or  to  take 
steps  to  improve  them.  But  if  improvements  are  to  be 
made  there  must  be  some  ideal  as  to  what  they  should  be 
and  how  they  will  enrich  the  lives  affected  by  them.  Here 
the  experience  of  other  communities  that  have  solved  similar 
problems  may  be  drawn  upon.  Finally,  there  must  be  coop- 
erative effort,  following  a  definite  program  agreed  upon  by 
all  concerned,  to  bring  about  the  change.  The  value  of  such 
an  improvement,  however  important  it  may  be  in  itself, 
is  not  less  than  the  benefit  that  comes  to  the  people  of  the 
community  who  meet  together  to  discuss  their  common 
problems  and  work  together  to  solve  them.  They  will  come 
to  know  one  another  better,  to  have  more  regard  for  one 
another,  and  will  gain  the  valuable  experience  necessary  for 
the  success  of  other  cooperative  enterprises. 


THE  RURAL   COMMUNITY  321 

The  relation  of  the  farmer  to  others  of  the  community 
includes  the  following  fields  of  activity:  business,  education, 
religion,  social  affairs,  recreation.  Rural  people,  and  others 
too,  find  a  common  interest  in  each  of  these  activities  and 
they  require  cooperative  effort  to  be  of  value  to  the  com- 
munity. 

Business  relations.  —  This  group  refers  to  any  kind  of 
cooperation  among  farmers  for  conducting  enterprises  con- 
cerned with  the  business  of  farming.  It  includes  such  simple 
forms  of  cooperation  as  exchange  of  labor,  such  as  filling 
silos,  threshing  grain,  and  the  like.  It  also  includes  larger 
enterprises  requiring  complete  and  permanent  organization, 
such  as  cooperative  creameries,  fruit  exchanges  and  live-stock 
associations. 

All  forms  of  cooperation  between,  and  including,  these 
extremes  are  based  upon  the  principle  that  a  number  of 
individuals  working  as  a  group,  wisely  directed,  may  ac- 
complish more  than  the  same  number  with  each  one  working 
independently. 

The  advantage  of  cooperative  effort  is  being  recognized  by 
farmers.  This  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  in  the  last  thirty 
years  cooperative  societies  have  increased  from  a  few  thou- 
sand to  more  than  one  hundred  thousand.  These  figures 
include  only  the  larger  societies.  The  following  examples 
will  illustrate  the  nature  and  importance  of  the  larger  or- 
ganizations: Live-stock  shipping  associations  have  been 
maintained  successfully  in  several  states  of  the  Middle  West. 
By  means  of  these  associations,  farmers  are  able  to  ship, 
advantageously,  less  than  car-load  lots  of  live  stock  directly 
to  the  market  and  receive  a  profit  that  would  otherwise  go 
to  a  local  live-stock  buyer. 

Cooperative    grain    elevators    are    another    example.      In 


322  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Minnesota,  in  1916,  270  of  these  elevators  did  a  business  of 
about  $24,000,000.  In  addition  to  handling  grain,  most 
elevator  associations  make  cooperative  purchases  of  supplies, 
such  as  coal,  feed,  binder  twine,  etc. 

Real  cooperation,  in  the  sense  of  loyalty  of  members  to 
each  other  and  to  the  cooperative  concern,  and  good  manage- 
ment are  necessary  for  success.  The  gains  made  by  a  small, 
but  well-managed  enterprise,  engaged  in  jointly  by  a  number 
of  farmers  in  any  neighborhood,  may  make  the  undertaking 
quite  worthwhile;  but  the  experience  of  working  together 
will  be  worth  even  more  than  the  profit  in  dollars  and  cents. 
It  will  also  encourage  the  undertaking  of  larger  enterprises. 

The  thing  most  lacking  in  securing  cooperative  effort 
among  farmers  is  leadership.  This  is  now  supplied  in  many 
localities  by  the  county  farm  agent.  While  he  cannot  enter 
actively  into  any  cooperative  organization,  he  is  able  to 
give  much  assistance  in  getting  it  under  way. 

Educational  relations.  —  The  need  of  educational  oppor- 
tunities is  recognized  in  most  communities  The  standards 
may  not  always  be  high,  but  there  is  generally  a  genuine 
desire  to  give  the  children  the  benefit  of  such  educational 
advantages  as  the  school  may  afford.  The  school  therefore 
becomes  a  center  of  common  interest.  With  this  interest  as 
a  basis,  school  patrons  may  be  brought  together  to  deal  with 
matters  affecting  the  school;  for  example,  to  make  a  campaign 
for  better  financial  support.  Organizations  composed  of 
teachers  and  parents,  such  as  patrons'  clubs  and  mothers' 
clubs,  may  not  only  initiate  movements  for  better  facilities, 
but  will  give  the  teachers  the  support  and  encouragement 
necessary  for  the  best  service. 

The  school  itself  should  extend  its  influence  beyond  its 
four  walls  into  the  homes  of  the  community.  Much  of  the 


THE  RURAL  COMMUNITY  323 

regular  school  work  may  be  made  to  relate  itself  to  the 
problems  of  the  farm  and  home.  Many  country  schools  now 
include  in  their  work  such  assistance  to  patrons  as  corn- 
germination  tests,  Babcock  tests  for  butter  fat,  fertilizer 
estimates,  milk  records,  and  home  projects,  such  as  canning, 
garment  making,  gardening  and  similar  activities. 

We  have  here  a  suggestion  well  worthwhile:  The  parents 
and  others  in  the  community  should  cooperate  with  one 
another  and  with  the  teacher  for  the  best  interest  of  the  pupils ; 
and  the  pupils  should  cooperate  in  their  school  work  or  under 
the  direction  of  the  teacher  in  helping  solve  some  of  the 
problems  that  arise  on  the  farm  and  in  the  homes. 

Church  relations.  —  Little  need  be  said  of  the  importance 
of  church  relations,  except  to  point  out  the  desirability  of 
making  the  most  of  them.  The  church  affords  an  opportunity 
for  landowner,  tenant  and  hired  help  to  meet  on  a  common 
basis.  It  already  has  its  organization  and  leader,  the  pastor. 
It  also  has  for  its  guidance  the  highest  ideals  of  fellowship 
and  cooperation.  But  the  organization,  leadership,  and  ideals 
must  affect  the  community  through  the  church  members. 
This  means  more  than  mere  belief  in  the  church  or  attendance 
only.  It  means  active  participation,  not  only  in  church 
matters  but  in  all  that  pertains  to  the  welfare  of  the  com- 
munity. 

Social  relations.  —  In  general,  social  relations  include  the 
various  forms  of  intercourse  where  individuals  meet  one 
another.  They  may  be  casual,  as  on  the  road,  in  the  store,  or 
at  church.  Even  a  business  transaction  may  have  in  it  ele- 
ments of  a  social  nature.  In  these  examples  the  social  features 
are  more  or  less  incidental. 

There  are  other  ways  in  which  people  come  into  contact 
with  one  another  where  enjoyment  of  fellowship  predominates, 


324  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

as  in  church  socials,  farmers'  clubs,  school  entertainments 
picnics  and  the  like. 

The  very  nature  of  farm  life  tends  toward  isolation.  Homes 
are  far  apart.  Farm  work  itself  deals  with  nature  rather 
than  people.  There  are  few  occasions  or  opportunities  for 
extended  acquaintance  with  people.  Rural  life  is  especially 
lacking  in  adequate  social  interests  for  boys  and  girls  who 
are  passing  from  childhood  to  maturity.  Yet  contact  with 
others  is  quite  as  important  for  the  farmer  and  his  family  as 
it  is  for  the  city  dweller  and  his  family.  Human  intercourse 
—  making  acquaintances  and  friends  —  is  too  valuable  an 
experience  to  be  left  out  of  life. 

How  to  secure  adequate  social  life  is  a  difficult  problem 
for  most  rural  communities.  A  partial  solution  has  already 
been  suggested.  It  lies  in  the  fullest  cooperation  and  in  the 
use  of  all  existing  agencies,  such  as  business  organizations, 
schools,  churches,  clubs  and  the  like,  to  furnish  occasions  for 
social  intercourse.  The  value  of  having  an  occasion  for  getting 
together  is  well  illustrated  by  the  influence  of  the  Red  Cross 
Society.  During  the  Great  War  branches  of  this  society 
were  organized  in  most  rural  communities.  People  came 
together  who  never  before  had  found  a  common  interest. 
The  members  did  a  fine,  patriotic  service,  but  they  also 
learned  how  to  work  in  harmony  and  to  know  and  appreciate 
each  other;  they  made  the  beginnings  of  real  friendship. 

One  of  the  best  agencies  for  the  promotion  of  social  life 
in  rural  communities  is  the  farmers'  club.  In  general,  its 
object  is  to  promote  the  interests  of  the  community  whenever 
there  may  be  need  for  united  action.  The  meetings  are 
occasions  for  getting  acquainted  and  encouraging  sociability, 
as  well  as  for  purposeful  activity.  •  *! 

Recreation.  —  The    need    of    wholesome    recreation,    es- 


THE  RURAL   COMMUNITY  325 

pecially  for  children  and  young  people,  has  been  very  gener- 
ally recognized  in  cities.  Playgrounds  and  recreation  centers 
for  both  children  and  adults  are  organized  in  most  cities  and 
are  rendering  a  splendid  service. 

*•  One  of  the  lessons  of  the  Great  War  is  that  of  emphasiz- 
ing the  importance  of  recreation.  An  outstanding  feature  of 
the  cantonments  where  many  thousands  of  soldiers  were 
trained  was  the  provision  for  recreation.  Perhaps  no  other 
one  thing,  aside  from  actual  military  training  itself,  con- 
tributed so  largely  to  the  efficiency  of  our  soldiers  as  par- 
ticipation in  the  various  forms  of  recreation  afforded  at  the 
camps. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  point  out  the  value  of  recreation 
for  people  who  live  on  farms.  Play  and  relaxation  are  just 
as  much  needed  by  them  as  by  other  people. 

Fortunately,  it  is  now  possible  in  most  rural  communities 
to  develop  organized  recreation.  There  are  several  agencies 
through  which  it  may  be  developed,  such  as  the  school,  the 
church  and  Sunday  school,  the  rural  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  the  Boy 
Scouts  and  the  Campnre  Girls,  clubs,  and  social  organizations. 

Recreational  activities  that  have  been  successful  in  rural 
communities  may  be  included  in  four  groups:  first,  those 
that  are  suggested  by  the  open  country  itself,  such  as  fishing, 
camping,  tramping,  winter  sports,  cooperative  farm  work,  such 
as  husking  bees,  etc.;  second,  those  furnished  by  the  school, 
church,  and  such  organizations  as  the  Boy  Scouts,  Campfire 
Girls,  and  rural  Y.  M.  C.  A.;  third,  playground  activities 
with  supervised  play,  games  and  athletics;  fourth,  community 
activities  such  as  festivals,  pageants,  athletic  field-days,  play- 
picnics,  and  the  like. 

Leadership  and  full  participation  are  necessary  for  success 
in  any  of  these  activities.  Arrangements  must  be  made  for 


326  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

individuals  of  all  ages  to  take  part.  The  teacher  and  pupils 
of  a  rural  school  could  easily  undertake  to  initiate  recreational 
activities  in  any  community.  Details  and  plans  for  introduc- 
ing various  forms  of  recreation  may  be  obtained  from  the 
Extension  Department  of  the  State  Agricultural  College;  the 
State  Secretary  of  Rural  Y.  M.  C.  A.;  the  State  Office  of 
Public  Instruction;  the  Country  Life  Commission  of  the 
Federal  Council  of  the  Churches  of  Christ  in  America,  New 
York  City;  and  from  the  Playground  and  Recreation  Asso- 
ciation of  America,  Metropolitan  Building,  New  York  City. 


APPENDIX 

PART  I 
REFERENCES 

The  following  list  of  references  will  supplement  the  various  phases  of  subject 
matter  presented  in  the  text.  As  many  of  them  as  possible  should  be  in  the 
school  library  for  the  use  of  teacher  and  pupils. 

The  pamphlets  may  be  obtained,  with  few  exceptions,  free  of  cost.  Requests 
for  publications  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  should  be 
addressed  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  write  the  title  in  the  request  but  it  is  important  to  give  the  number  of 
the  bulletin  or  circular  and  the  class  to  which  it  belongs,  for  example,  Farmers' 
Bulletin,  No.  77;  Yearbook  Separate,  No.  637;  Department  Bulletin,  No.  78. 

Bulletins  and  circulars  published  by  various  State  Agricultural  Experiment 
Stations  and  State  Departments  of  Agriculture  may  usually  be  obtained  with- 
out expense.  In  the  list  of  these  references  the  address  of  the  station  or  state 
department  of  each  is  given. 

BOOKS 

Rural  Science  Reader,  S.  B.  McCready.     New  York:    D.  C.  Heath  and  Co. 
The  Teaching  of  Agriculture,  A.  W.  Nolan.     Boston:     Hough  ton  Mifflin  Co. 
The  Botany  of  Crop  Plants,  W.  W.  Robbins.     Philadelphia:     P.  Blakiston's 

Sons  Co. 

Practical  Botany,  Bergen  and  Caldwell.    Boston:    Ginn  and  Co. 
Elementary  Studies  in  Botany,  J.  M.  Coulter.    New  York:  D.  Appleton  and  Co. 
First  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility,  Alfred  Vivian.    New  York :   Orange  Judd  Co. 
Soils  and  Fertilisers,  T.  Lyttleton.     New  York:    The  Macmillan  Co. 
Agricultural  Bacteriology,  H.  W.  Conn.    Philadelphia:    P.  Blakiston's  Sons  Co. 
Principles  of  Agronomy,  Harris  and  Stewart.    New  York:    The  Macmillan  Co. 

327 


328  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Cereals  in  America,  T.  F.  Hunt.    New  York:  Orange  Judd  Co. 
Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America,  T.  F.  Hunt.    New  York:  Orange  Judd  Co. 
Manual  of  Gardening,  L.  H.  Bailey.    New  York:   The  Macmillan  Co. 
Garden  Crops  —  Production  and  Preservation,  L.  S.  Ivins.     Chicago:    Rand, 

McNally  and  Co. 

Principles  of  Fruit  Growing,  L.  H.  Bailey.    New  York:   The  Macmillan  Co. 
Plant  Breeding,  Bailey  and  Gilbert.    New  York:   The  Macmillan  Co. 
Weeds  of  the  Farm  and  Garden,  L.  H.  Pammel.    New  York:   Orange  Judd  Co. 
Injurious  Insects  —  How  to  Recognize  and  Control  Them,  W.  C.  O'Kane.    New 

York:    The  Macmillan  Co. 
Birds  in  Their  Relation  to  Man,  Weed  and  Dearborn.    Philadelphia:  J.  B.  Lip- 

pincott  Co. 
Productive  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals,  F.  W.  Woll.     Philadelphia:   J.  B.  Lip- 

pincott  Co. 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  C.  S.  Plumb.    Boston:   Ginn  and  Co. 
Dairy  Farming,  Eckles  and  Warren.    New  York:   The  Macmillan  Co. 
Sheep  Feeding  and  Farm  Management,  D.  H.  Doane.    Boston:    Ginn  and  Co. 
Swine  in  America,  F.  D.  Coburn.    New  York:   Orange  Judd  Co. 
The  Horse,  I.  P.  Roberts.    New  York:  The  Macmillan  Co. 
Manual  of  Farm  Animals,  M.  W.  Harper.    New  York:    The  Macmillan  Co. 
Principles  and  Practice  of  Poultry  Culture,  J.  H.  Robinson.     Boston:    Ginn 

and  Co. 

Farm  Management,  Andrew  Boss.     Chicago:    Lyons  and  Carnahan. 
Equipment  for  the  Farm  and  the  Farmstead,  H.  C.  Ramsower.    Boston:    Ginn 

and  Co. 
Home  and  Community  Hygiene,  J.   Broadhurst.     Philadelphia:    J.   B.  Lip- 

pincott  Co. 

Agricultural  Economics,  E.  G.  Nourse.    Chicago:   University  of  Chicago  Press. 
Educational  Resources  of  Village  and  Rural  Communities ,  J .  K .  Hart.    New  York : 

The  Macmillan  Co. 

The  Kurd  Teacher  and  His  Work,  H.  W.  Foght.   New  York :   The  Macmillan  Co. 
Social  Games  and  Group  Dances  Suitable  for  Country  and  Social  Use,  Elsom  and 

Trilling.     Philadelphia:    J.  B.  Lippincott  Co. 

Play  and  Recreation  for  the  Open  Country,  H.  S.  Curtis.    Boston:  Ginn  and  Co. 
Recreation  and  the  Church,  H.  W.  Gates.    Chicago:  University  of  Chicago  Press. 


REFERENCES  329 

FARMERS'  BULLETINS,  U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

« 
Tile  Drainage  on  the  Farm.     No.  524 

Handling  Barnyard  Manure  in  Eastern  Pennsylvania.     No.  978 

The  Principles  of  the  Liming  of  Soils.     No.  921 

Crop  Systems  for  Arkansas.     No.   1000 

Corn  Cultivation.    No.  414 

Corn  Growing  under  Droughty  Conditions.     No.  773 

Control  of  the  Root,  Stalk  and  Ear  Rot  Diseases  of  Corn.     No.  1176 

Production  of  Good  Seed  Corn.    No.  229 

Better  Seed  Corn.      No.  1175 

The  Making  and  Feeding  Silage.     578 

Homemade  Silos.    No.  589 

Growing  Winter  Wheat  on  the  Great  Plains.    No.  894 

Growing  Hard  Spring  Wheat.    No.  678 

Spring  Oat  Production.    No.  892 

Barley:  Growing  the  Crop.    No.  443 

Winter  Barley.    No.  518 

Cultivation  and  Utilization  of  Barley.    No.  968 

Rye  Growing  in  the  Southeastern  States .    No .  894 

Culture  of  Rye  in  Eastern  Half  of  United  States.    No.  756 

Prairie  Rice  Culture.    No.  1092 

Buckwheat.    No.  1062 

Forage  Crops  for  the  Cotton  Region.    No.  509 

Meadows  for  the  Northern  States.      No.  1170 

Alfalfa  on  Corn-Belt  Farms.    No.  1021 

Red  Clover.    No.  455 

Crimson  Clover:  Growing  the  Crop.    No.  550 

The  Soy  Bean:  Its  Culture  and  Uses.    No.  973 

The  Boll- weevil  Problem.    No.  848 

How  Insects  Affect  the  Cotton  Plant  —  Control.    No.  890 

Late  or  Main  Crop  Potatoes.    No.  1064 

Home  Supplies  Furnished  by  the  Farm.    No.  1082 

The  Home  Vegetable  Garden.    No.  255 

The  Farm  Garden  in  the  North.    No.  937 


330  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Home  Gardening  in  the  South.    No.  934 

Producing  Family  and  Farm  Supplies  on  the  Cotton  Farm.    No.  1015 

Control  of  Diseases  and  Insect  Enemies  of  the  Home  Vegetable  Garden.   No.  856 

Home  Canning  Fruits  and  Vegetables.    No.  85-3 

Home  Storage  of  Vegetables.    No.  879 

Farm  and  Home  Drying  of  Fruit  and  Vegetables.    No.  984 

Growing  Fruit  for  Home  Use.    No.  1001 

Profitable  Management  of  the  Small  Apple  Orchard  on  the  General  Farm. 

No.  491 

Growing  Peaches.    No.  917 
Pruning.     No.  181 
Information  for  Fruit  Growers  about  Insecticides,  Spraying  Apparatus,  and 

Important  Insect  Pests.    No.  908 
Good  Seed  Potatoes  and  How  to  Grow  Them.    No.  533 
Testing  Farm  Seeds  in  the  Home  and  the  Rural  School.    No.  428 
How  to  Increase  the  Potato  Crop  by  Spraying.    No.  868 
Weeds  and  How  to  Control  Them.    No.  660 

How  to  Detect  Outbreaks  of  Insects  and  Save  the  Grain  Crop.    No.  835 
Common  White  Grubs.    No.  940 

Grasshopper  Control  in  Relation  to  Cereal  and  Forage  Crops.    No.  747 
Cutworms  and  Their  Control  in  Corn  and  Other  Cereal  Crops.    No.  739 
True  Army  Worm  and  Its  Control.    No.  731 
Wireworms  Destructive  to  Cereal  and  Forage  Crops.    No.  725 
The  Larger  Corn-stalk  Borer.    No.  1025 
Bollworm  or  Corn  Earworm.    No.  872 
Chinch  Bug.    No.  657 
The  Hessian  Fly.    No.  1083 

Corn-root  Aphis  and  Methods  of  Controlling  It.    No.  891 
The  Wheat  Jointworm  and  Its  Control.    No.  1006 

Aphids  Injurious  to  Orchard  Fruits,  Currant,  Gooseberry  and  Grape.    No.  804 
Common  Birds  Useful  to  the  Farmer.    No.  630 
Common  Birds  in  Relation  to  Man.    No.  497 
How  to  Attract  Birds  in  the  East  Central  States.    No.  912 
How  to  Attract  Birds  in  the  Middle  Atlantic  States.    No.  844 
Bird  Houses  and  How  to  Build  Them.   No.  609 


REFERENCES  331 

Essentials  of  Animal  Breeding.     No.  1167 

The  Computation  of  Rations  for  Farm  Animals  by  Use  of  Energy  Values. 

No.  346 

Breeds  of  Beef  Cattle.    No.  612 
Growing  Beef  on  the  Farm.    No.  1073 
Economical  Cattle  Feeding  in  the  Corn  Belt.    No.  588 
Cotton-seed  Meal  for  Feeding  Beef  Cattle.    No.  655 
Judging  Beef  Cattle.    No.  1068 
Breeds  of  Dairy  Cattle.    No.  893 
The  Care  of  Milk  and  Its  Use  in  the  Home.    No.  413 
Clean  Milk;  Production  and  Handling.    No.  602 
Cooling  Milk  and  Cream  on  the  Farm.    No.  976 
Straining  Milk.    No.  1019 
Bacteria  in  Milk.    No.  490 
Making  Butter  on  the  Farm.    No.  876 
Breeds  of  Sheep  for  the  Farm.    No.  576 
Farm  Sheep  Raising  for  Beginners.    No.  840 
Equipment  for  Farm  Sheep  Raising.    No.  810 
Breeds  of  Swine.    No.  765 
A  Corn-belt  Farming  System  Which  Saves  Labor  by  Hogging  Sown  Crops. 

No.  614 

The  Self-feeder  for  Hogs.    No.  906 
Breeds  of  Draft  Horses.    No.  619 
Feeding  Horses.    No.  1030 
How  to  Select  a  Sound  Horse.    No.  779 
Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens.    Nos.  806  and  1052 
Illustrated  Poultry  Primer.    No.  1040 

Bulletins  for  Beginners  in  Poultry  Raising.  Nos.  1105-1116 
Poultry  Management.    No.  287 
Hints  to  Poultry  Raisers.    No.  528 
Natural  and  Artificial  Incubation.    No.  585 
Natural  and  Artificial  Brooding  of  Chickens.    No.  624 
Feeding  Hens  for  Egg  Production.    No.  1067 
Important  Poultry  Diseases.    No.  957 
Mites  and  Lice  on  Poultry.    No.  801 


332  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Selecting  a  Farm.    No.  1088 

Farm  Bookkeeping.    No.  511 

A  System  of  Farm  Cost  Accounting.    No.  572 

A  Method  of  Analyzing  the  Farm  Business.    No.  1139 

The  Use  of  a  Diary  for  Farm  Accounts.    No.  782 

Farm  Household  Accounts.    No.  964 

Waste  Land  and  Wasted  Land  on  Farms.    No.  745 

Better  Use  of  Man  Labor  on  the  Farm.    No.  989 

Care  and  Repair  of  Farm  Implements.    No.  1036 

Modern  Conveniences  for  Farm  Homes.    No.  270 

Beautifying  the  Home  Grounds.    No.  185 

Beautifying  the  Farmstead.    No.  1087 

Planning  the  Farmstead.    No.  1132 

Cooperative  Live-stock  Shipping  Associations.    No.  718 

Cooperative  Marketing.   No.  1144 

The  Community  Fair.    No.  870 

DEPARTMENT  BULLETINS,  U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 
Lessons  on  Potatoes  for  Elementary  Rural  Schools.    No.  784 
The  Cost  of  Raising  a  Dairy  Cow.    No.  49 
Lessons  on  Dairying  for  Rural  Schools.    No.  1763 

Judging  Sheep  as  a  Subject  of  Instruction  in  Secondary  Schools.    No.  593 
The  Management  of  Sheep  on  the  Farm.    No.  20 
Lessons  on  Pork  Production  for  Elementary  Rural  Schools.    No.  646 
Cooperative  Organization  Business  Methods.    No.  178 
Rural  Community  Buildings  in  U.     .    No.  825 
Water  Supply,  Plumbing  and  Sewage  Disposal  for  Country  Homes.    No.  57 

YEARBOOK  SEPARATES,  U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 
Function  and  Value  of  Soil  Bacteria.    No.  507 
Federal  Protection  of  Migratory  Birds.    No.  785 
The  Relation  Between  Birds  and  Insects.    No.  486 
Plants  Useful  to  Attract  Birds  and  Protect  Fruits.    No.  504 
Does  It  Pay  the  Farmer  to  Protect  Birds?    No.  443 

Cooperative  Marketing,  and  Financing  of  Marketing  Associations.    No.  637 
Comforts  and  Conveniences  for  Farm  Homes.    No.  518 


REFERENCES  333 

BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY,  U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Maintenance  Rations  for  Farm  Animals.    Bui.  No.  143 

Records  of  Dairy  Cows,  Their  Value  and  Importance  in  Economic  Milk  Pro- 
duction.   Cir.  No.  103 

A  Plan  for  a  Small  Dairy  House.    Cir.  No.  195 
Extra  Cost  of  Producing  Clean  Milk.    Cir.  No.  170 
Stomach  Worms  in  Sheep.    Cir.  No.  102 

STATE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS,  AND  DEPARTMENTS 
OF  AGRICULTURE 

The  Roots  of  Plants.    Bui.  No.  127.     Manhattan,  Kan.:   State  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station 

Soil  Moisture  and  Tillage  for  Corn.    Bui.  No.  181.    Urbana,  111.:  State  Ag- 
ricultural Experiment  Station 

Barnyard  Manure.     Bui.  No.  246.     Wooster,  Ohio:    State  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station 

Potassium  from  the  Soil.     Bui.  No.  182.     Urbana,   111.:    State  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station 

Production  and  Care  of  Barnyard  Manure.    Bui.  No.  210.    Harrisburg,  Pa.: 
State  Department  of  Agriculture 

Ground  Limestone  for  Acid  Soils.    Cir.  no.     Urbana,  111.:  State  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station 

Raw  Phosphate  Rock  as  a  Fertilizer.    Bui.  305.     Wooster,  Ohio:  State  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station 

Maintenance  of  Soil  Fertility.     Bui.  No.  336.     Wooster,  Ohio:    State  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station 

Some  Fundamental  Principles  in  Fertility  Maintenance.    Bui.  No.  210.    Harris- 
burg,  Pa.:   State  Department  of  Agriculture 

Illinois  System  of  Permanent  Fertility.    Cir.  167.    Urbana,  111.:    State  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station 

The  Silo  and  Its  Use.     Bui.  No.  133.     Columbia,  Mo.:    State  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station 

Filling  Silos.    Cir.  No.  53.    Manhattan,  Kan.:  State  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station 


334  PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

Smut  of  Grain  and  Forage  Crops.     Bui.  No.  200.    Manhattan,  Kan.:    State 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
A  Brief  Handbook  of  the  Diseases  of  Plants  in  Ohio.    Bui.  No.  214.    Wooster, 

Ohio:   State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
Some  Ohio  Birds.    Bui.  No.  250.  Wooster,  Ohio :  State  Agricultural  Experiment 

Station 
Computing  Rations  for  Farm  Animals.    Bui.  No.  321.    Ithaca,  N.  Y.:   State 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
Cora  Silage  the  Keystone  of  Economical  Cattle  Feeding.     Bui.  No.  235. 

Lafayette,  Ind.:  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
Dairy  Barn  and  Milk  House  Arrangement.    Cir.  No.  6,  1919.    Lincoln,  Neb.: 

State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
Cow  vs.  Cows.    Cir.  No.  118.    Urbana,  111.:   State  Agricultural  Experiment 

Station 
Livestock  Farming  vs.  Grain  Farming.    Bui.  No.  328.     Wooster,  Ohio:   State 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
Septic  Tanks  and  Absorptive  Systems.    Bui.  No.  100.    Corvallis,  Ore.:   State 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
Sewage  Disposal  for  Country  Homes.     Cir.  No.  60.    Madison,  Wis.:    State 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

Model  Farm  Homes.     Bui.  52.    St.  Paul,  Minn.:    State  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station 
The  Farm  House.      Bui.  No.  241.     Harrisburg,  Pa.:    State  Department  of 

Agriculture 
Rural  Clubs  in  Wisconsin.    Bui.  No.  271.    Madison,  Wis.:  State  Agricultural 

Experiment  Station 
The  Country  Church,  an  Economic  and  Social  Force.     Bui.  No.  278.    Madison, 

Wis.:   State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
Play  Days  in  Rural  Schools.    Cir.  No.  118.    Madison,  Wis.:  State  Agricultural 

Experiment  Station 

Rural  Relations  of  High  Schools.     Bui.  No.  288.     Madison,  Wis.:    State  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station 
Cooperation  in  Wisconsin.    Bui.  No.  282.    Madison,  Wis. :  State  Agricultural 

Experiment  Station 


PART  H 

Digestible  Nutrients  in  100  Pounds  of  Common  Feeding  Stuffs 


KIND  OF  FEED 

Dry 

Matter 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrate 

Fat 

Roughage 
Corn  fodder  with  ears  on  

57-8 
59-5 
26.4 
84.7 
86.0 

84-7 
88.2 

89.5 
91.9 
88.7 
90.0 
87.1 

89.4 

88.7 
85-0 

84.9 
90.8 

90-5 
88.8 
88.1 
88.4 

9i-3 

89.2 
89.6 
88.0 
91.2 

85-4 
88.3 
90.1 
90.2 
91  .0 
89.7 
93-0 
88.9 

9i-3 
92.4 
91  .6 
79-2 

2-5 
1.4 
1.4 

4.2 

4-4 
7-i 
10.6 
9.2 
10.5 
11.9 
9.6 
5-8 

7-8 
8.0 
•    6.1 
4-4 
21.3 
29.7 
13.0 
II.  9 
9.6 
9-5 
8.4 
8.8 

10.  I 

i3-i 
16.8 
29.1 

5-2 

30.2 
3i-5 
12.5 
37-6 

o-3 
20.  o 
32-8 
4.1 
4-7 

34-6 
31-2 
14.2 
42.0 
40.2 
37-8 
40.9 
39-3 
40-5 
40.7 

52.5 
41.8 

66.8 
66.2 

64-3 
60.0 
52.8 
42.5 
45-7 
42.0 
48.2 
69.4 
65-3 
49-2 
52.5 
57-7 
54-9 
23-3 
44-3 
32.0 

35-7 
30.0 
21.4 
33-2 
32-2 

39-7 
64.9 

54-1 

1.2 
0.7 
0.7 

i-3 
0.7 
.8 

.2 

•3 
•9 
.6 

•4 
•  3 

4-3 
4-3 
3-5 
2.9 
2.9 
6.1 
4-5 

2-5 

1.9 

I  .2 

1.6 
4-3 
3-7 
6'-  5 
i  .1 
14.6 
1.4 
6.9 
2.4 

i7-3 
9-6 

i-7 

6.0 
n.  6 

Corn  fodder,  ears  removed  

Corn  silage 

Hay  from  mixed  grasses 

Kentucky  blue  grass  .  . 

Red  clover  

Soybean  hay  

Cowpea  hay.  .  .  . 

Alfalfa  

Hairy  vetch.    .  .  . 

Velvet  bean  

Mixed  grasses  and  clover 

Concentrates 
Dent  corn  

Flint  corn  .*•.  

Corn  meal  

Corn  and  cob  meal 

Gluten  feed  

Gluten  meal  

Standard  wheat  middlings  (shorts)  .... 
Wheat  bran 

Wheat  screenings 

Rve  . 

Barley  

Oats  

Ground  oats  

Oat  middlings 

Cowpea 

Soybean 

Kafir  corn  

Linseed  meal  (old  process)  .  . 

Linseed  meal  (new  process)  .... 

Cotton  seed  

Cotton  seed  meal  

Cotton  seed  hulls 

Dried  brewers'  grains 

Dried  distillers'  grains 

Dried  beet  pulp       ..... 

Sugar  beet  molasses.  .  .    .        

335 


PART  III 

FEEDING   STANDARDS 

DAILY  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  1000  POUNDS  LIVE  WEIGHT 
(Adapted  from  Henry's  Feeds  and  Feeding) 


Digestible 

Nutri- 

Dry 
Matter 

Protein 

Carbohydrates 
and  fat  (x  2.25) 

Total 

tive 
ratio 

Horses,  lightly  worked  
Horses,  moderately  worked 
Horses,  heavily  worked.  .  .  . 
Cattle,      fattening,      first 
period  
Cattle,    fattening,    second 
period  

Pounds 

2O 
24 
26 

30 
3° 

Pounds 

i-5 

2.O 

2-5 
2-5 

3-O 

Pounds 

10.4 

12.4 
I5-I 

16.1 
16.1 

Pounds 
n.  9 
14.4 
17.6 

18.6 
19.1 

1:6.9 
1:6.2 
1:6.0 

i  :6  .  4 
1:5.4 

Cattle,  fattening,  finishing 
period  

26 

2-7 

16.6 

IQ.  1 

1:6.1 

Sheep,  coarse  wool  
Sheep  fine  wool.  .  .  . 

20 
23 

I  .  2 
I    r 

II.  0 
12    7 

12.  2 
I<1    2 

1:9.2 
1-8  < 

Ewes  with  lambs  

2s 

2    Q 

16  i 

19  o 

ix  6 

Sheep,      fattening,      first 
period.    .    . 

-3Q 

•2     Q 

16  i 

TQ      T 

j  -r    A 

Sheep,    fattening,    second 
period  

28 

•2    r 

I  s"    O 

IO   4. 

I  -4.    er 

Brood  sows  

22 

2    C 

16  A. 

18  o 

I'66 

Hogs,  fattening,  first  period 
Hogs,     fattening,     second 
period. 

36 

•30 

4-5 

26.6 

31-6 
2O    I 

i:5-9 
1-6  ^ 

Hogs,   fattening,   finishing 
period  

2C 

2    7 

z^  .  i 
18  o 

21.6 

1:6.3 

336 


PART  IV 


SPRAYING  PROGRAM 

(From  Ohio  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.     Although  prepared 
for  Ohio  this  program  has  very  general  application) 

APPLE 


Spray  No. 

When  to  Apply 

Materials  to  Use 

What  For 

i 

When   leaf   buds 

Lime-sulphur  (33°  Beaume)  —  i  part 

Scale 

show  green  be- 
fore leaves  ap- 
pear 

Water  —  7  parts 
Or  —  Miscible  oil  —  i  part 
Water  —  15  parts 

Aphis  eggs 
Mites  eggs 

Or  —  Powdered  lime-sulphur,    15    pounds 
in  50  gallons  of  water 
Or  —  Soluble    sulphur    \2\    pounds  to  50 
gallons  of  water  

2 

When  cluster  buds 

Bordeaux  mixture  (3-5-50),  if  canker  worms 

Black  rot 

show  pink  be- 
fore   blossoms 
open  

(measuring  worms)  are  present  add  arsenate 
of  lead  ij  pounds  powder  (2^  paste)  to  50 
gallons  of  spray.  If  aphids  are  numerous 
add  nicotine  sulphate  i  pint  to  100  gallons 
of  spray  ...  

Apple  scab 
Canker  worms 
Aphis 

3 

Just  after  petals 

Lime-sulphur    \\    gallons    plus    arsenate    of 

Aphis 

lead  i  pound  powder  (2  pounds  paste)  to 

Apple  scab 

50  gallons  of  water.  If  aphids  are  numer- 
ous add  nicotine  sulphate  i  pint  to  100 
gallons  of  spray  

Sooty  fungus 
Curculio 
Codling  moth 

Canker  worms 

4  

14     days     after 

Apple  blotch 

spray  No.  3  ... 

Or  —  If  blotch  is  not  present,  lime-sulphur 
il  gallons  plus  arsenate  of  lead  i  pound 
powder  (2  pounds  paste)  to  50  gallons  of 
water.  Use  Bordeaux  mixture  instead  of 
lime-sulphur  on  Ben  Davis,  Gano,  Smith 
Cider,  Mann,  Rome  Beauty,  Missouri 
Pippin,  Red  Astrachan,  Maiden  Blush, 
York  Imperial,  Oldenburg,  Stark  and  N.  W. 
Greening  varieties,  all  these  being  specially 
susceptible  to  blotch  .  . 

Codling  moth 
Curculio 

*  Special 

2     weeks     after 

Bordeaux  mixture  (3-5-50) 

Blotch 

blotch 
sprays. 

spray  No.  4  if 
blotch  is  seri- 
ous.    Again  4 
weeks        after 
spray  No.  4  (6 
weeks        after 
petals   fall)    if 
blotch  is  very 
serious  

5  

9-  10  weeks  after 
spray    No.     3 
(July  i  to  20) 

Bordeaux  mixture  (3-5-50)  plus  arsenate  of 
lead  i  pound  powder  (2  pounds  paste)  to 
50  gallons  of  water 

Black  rot 
Bitter  rot 
Apple  blotch 

Codling  moth 

Special  sprays  are  not  numbered  as  they  are  not  part  of  the  customary  program  but  are 
supplementary  sprays  for  emergency  conditions. 

337 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 


PEAR  AND  QUINCE 


Spray  No. 

When  to  Apply 

Materials  to  Use 

What  For 

i 

When  leaf  buds 

Or  —  Lime-sulphur  liquid  —  i  part 

Scale 

show  green  be- 
fore leaves  ap- 
pear   

Water  —  7  parts 
Or  —  Miscible  oil  —  i  part 
Water  —  1  5  parts 

Aphis  eggs 
Mites  eggs 

cr;,u 

Or  —  Powdered    lime-sulphur,   15    pounds 
in  50  gallons  of  water  .  .  .•  

2  

Soon  as  petals 
fall 

Lime-sulphur    liquid    ii   gallons,   water    50 
gallons    plus  arsenate   of  lead  powder   i 

Codling  moth 

pound  (2  pounds  paste) 
Or  —  Bordeaux  mixture  (3-5-50)  plus  arsenate 
of  lead  powder,  i  pound  (2  pounds  paste) 
Or  —  Lime-sulphur  powder  2  pounds  in  50 
gallons  water,  plus  arsenate  of  lead  powder 
i  pound  (2  pounds  paste)  

Scab 
Sooty  fungus 
Leaf  -spot 

3-    • 

9    to    10    weeks 

Lime-sulphur    ij   gallons    plus   arsenate   of 

S         d     h       H 

after  No.  2 
(July  is-Au- 
gust  i)  

lead  powder  i  pound  (2  pounds  paste)  to 
50  gallons  of  water. 

codling  worm 
Scab 

of  lead  powder  i  pound  (2  pounds  paste) 
to  50  gallons  of  water  

PEACH 


Spray  No. 

When  to  Apply 

Materials  to  Use 

What  For 

i  

In      fall      after 

Lime-sulphur  solution  i  part,  water  7  parts 

Scale  insects 

leaves  drop,  on 
favorable  win- 
ter days  above 
50°  F.  in  Feb- 
ruary or  March 
or    any    time 
before  the  buds 
begin  to  swell. 
After  buds  are 
swollen    it    is 
too  late  to  con- 
trol leaf  curl  .  . 

Or  —  Home-boiled  lime-sulphur  (15-15-50) 
Or  —  Powder    lime-sulphur    15    pounds    to 
50  gallons 
Or  —  Soluble  sulphur  12$  pounds  to  50  gallons 

Peach  leaf  curl 

2  

After  bloom  has 

Self  -boiled    lime-sulphur     (8-8-50)    plus    ij 

Curculio 

fallen       when 

pounds  arsenate  of  lead  powder  (2$  pounds 
paste)  in  each  50  gallons  of  spray  

Scab 
Brown  rot 

fruit  are  shed- 
ding   

,          , 

(Same  as  No    2)                                 

(Same  as  No.  2) 

spray  No.  2  ... 

Self-boiled  lime-sulphur  (8-8-50)  

Brown  rot 

spray  No.  3  ... 

Scab 

(Same  as  No   4)                                  

Brown  rot 

after        spray 
No.  4  on  late 
varieties         if 
brown    rot    is 
prevalent  

SPRAYING    PROGRAM 
PLUM 


339 


Spray  No. 

When  to  Applj* 

Materials  to  Use 

What  For 

In  late  fall  after 

Lime-sulphur  solution  i  part,  water  7  parts 

Scale  insects 

leaves       have 
fallen,    on    fa- 
vorable winter 
days  above  50° 
F.    in    Feb.    or 
March,     or    in 
spring       before 
leaves  appear  .  . 

Or  —  Home-boiled  lime-sulphur  (5°  Beaume) 
Or  —  Miscible  oil  i  part,  water  15  parts 
Or  —  Powdered  lime  -sulphur,   15  pounds  to 
50  gallons 
Or  —  Soluble  sulphur,  \2\  pounds  to  50  gallons. 

2  

When  bloom  has 
fallen          and 

On  American  and  Japanese  varieties  — 
Self-boiled  lime-sulphur  (8-8-50)  plus  arse- 

Curculio 

husks  are  push- 
ing off  young 
fruit  

nate  of  lead  powder  ii  pounds  (25  pounds 
past) 
Or  —  On  European  varieties  and  hybrids  — 

Brown  rot 

Commercial  lime-sulphur   i   gallon  to   50 
gallons    of   water   plus    arsenate    of    lead 
powder  ij  pounds  (2^  pounds  paste) 
Or  —  If  curculio  is  serious,  use  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture   (3-5-50)   plus   2  pounds  arsenate  of 
lead  powder  (4  pounds  paste)  and  add    2 
pounds    of    dissolved    soap    to    each    50 
gallons  of  spray  as  a  sticker         

3 

2  to  3  weeks  after 

(Same  as  No.  2)                                    

Curculio 

spray  No.  2  ... 

Brown  rot 

4  

4     to     5     weeks 

Same  as  No.   2,  preferring  self  -boiled  lime- 

Curculio 

after        spray 
No    2 

sulphur    (8-8-50)    plus    arsenate    of    lead 

Brown  rot 

CHERRY 


Spray  No. 

When  to  Apply 

Material  to  Use 

What  For 

i  

In  fall  after  leaves 
drop  on  favor- 

Lime-sulphur solution,  i  part,  water  7  parts 
Or  — 

Scale  insects 
Brown  rot 

able        winter 
days  when  tem- 

Home-boiled  lime-sulphur  brought   to   5° 
Beaume 

Leaf-spot  or 
shot-hole 

perature         is 

Or  — 

fungus 

above  50°  F.  in 

Miscible  oil  —  i  part 

February      or 

Water  —  15  parts 

March  or  any 

Or  — 

time  before  the 

Powdered  lime  -sulphur   15   pounds   to   50 

leaves  appear. 

gallons  of  water 

If  scale  is  not 

Or  — 

present,       the 

Soluble  sulphur  12  \  pounds  to  50  gallons 

time  when  the 

of  water. 

buds  are  swell- 

If scale  is  not  present  spray  all  varieties  with 

ing  is  most  fa- 

Bordeaux mixture  (3-5-50)  for  brown  rot  .  . 

vorable  to  con- 

trol      fungous 

diseases  

340 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

CHERRY — Continued 


Spray  No. 

When  to  Apply 

Material  to  Use 

What  For 

2  

Just    after    blos- 

On sour  varieties  concentrated  lime-sulphur 

Curculio 

soms   fall   and 
husks  are  shed- 
di  ng    from 
young  fruit  

i  gallon  to  50  of  water,  or  use  Bordeaux 
mixture  (3-5-50)  and  add  to  whichever  is 
used  ij  pounds  arsenate  lead  powder  (25 
pounds  paste).     Add  nicotine  sulphate,  i 
pint  to  100  gallons  of  whichever  spray  is 
used  if  aphids  are  numerous.    If  curculio  is 
bad,  use  Bordeaux  (3-5-50)  and  2  pounds 
dissolved  soap  plus  2  pounds  arsenate  lead 
powder  (4  pounds  paste). 
On    sweet    cherries    self-boiled    lime-sulphur 
(8-8-50)  plus  arsenate  of  lead  powder  ij 
pounds  (25  pounds  paste)  to  50  gallons.  .  .  . 

Aphids 
Cherry  slug 
Leaf-spot    or 
shot-hole 
fungus 
Brown  rot 

3  

2  to  5  weeks  after 

Commercial  lime-sulphur  liquid  i  to  50  for 

Curculio 

spray     No.     2 
when  fruit  be- 
gins  to   color. 
Very  important 

both  sweet  and  sour  cherries 
Or  — 
Self-boiled  lime-sulphur  (8-8-50)  preferred 
for  sweet  cherries  

Aphids 
Cherry  slug 
Leaf-spot  or 
shot-hole 

application  .... 

fungus 
Brown  rot 

4  

After     fruit     is 
picked  

Self-boiled  lime-sulphur  (8-8-50)  plus  arse- 
nate of  lead  powder  i£  pounds  (3  pounds 
paste)  if  slugs  are  eating  leaves  

Leaf-spot 

Slugs 

GRAPE 


Spray  No. 

When  to  Apply 

Materials  to  Use 

What  For 

i  

10    days    before 

Bordeaux  (3-5-50)                                   

Mildew 

bloom  opens  .  .  . 

Black  rot 

2 

Grape    berry 

falling  of  bloom 

powder  i$  pounds  (3  pounds  paste)  and 
i  pound  resin  soap  for  sticker  in  each  50 
gallons.     Use   trailer   method  and   pump 

worm 
Grape  root 
worm 
Mildew 

Black  rot 
Anthracnose 

3  

(Same  as  No-   2) 

(Same  as  No.  2) 

touch  in  clusters 
about  i  month 
after  bloom  

^  

Arsenate  of  lead  i  J  pounds  powder  (3  pounds 

Grape    berry 

worms  are  very 

paste)  in  50  gallons  of  water  

worm 

numerous.  Then 
make     applica- 
tion  near    2oth 
to  25th  of  July 
when    eggs    are 
being  deposited 
on  skins  of  fruit. 

For  all  grape  sprays  use  stone  lime  if  obtainable  to  avoid  injury  to  foliage.  The  Bordeaux 
formula  (2-2-50),  stone  lime  being  used,  leaves  the  smallest  amount  of  spray  adhering  to  the 
fruit  at  harvest. 


SPRAYING    PROGRAM 

CURRANT  AND  GOOSEBERRY 


341 


Spray  No. 

When  to  Apply 

Materials  to  Use 

What  For 

i  

While     dormant 

Any  of  the  standard  dormant  or  scale  sprays 

in    fall,    winter 
or  spring  

recommended    in    these    tables    for   other 
fruits  

2  

When  leaves  are 

Bordeaux  (3-5-50)  

Leafs 

unfolding  

Cane  wilt 
Mildew 
Anthracnose 

3  

Soon   after   fruit 

Bordeaux  (3-5-50)  plus  arsenate  of  lead  i^ 

Leafs 

is  set  

pounds  of  powder   (3  pounds  paste).     If 
aphids    are    appearing   also   add    nicotine 
sulphate,  i  pint  to  100  gallons  of  spray  

Mildew 
Currant 
worms 
Aphids 

2     weeks     after 

spray  No.  3  if 

used  instead  of  arsenate  of  lead   . 

(  ameas     0.3; 

worms  are  pres- 
ent   

5  

After     fruit      is 

Bordeaux  (3-5-50) 

picked  

Anthracnose 

STRAWBERRY 


Spray  No. 

When  to  Apply 

Materials  to  Use 

What  For 

i  

When  leaves  are 

Bordeaux  mixture  (3-5-50)  

Leaf  -spot 

about    one-half 
grown,      before 
blooming.  If  the 
beds  are  young, 
spray     i     week 
later    than    the 
old  beds  

2  

After     fruit      is 
picked  

Mow  the  vines  close  to  the  ground  and  burn 
them  on  a  windy  day  or  remove  and  burn; 
or  spray  the  new  growth  with  Bordeaux 
(3-5-50)-  Drouth  following  such  a  burning 
sometimes  prevents  a  crop  the  next  year.  .  . 

Leaf-spot 

342 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FARM  PRACTICE 

RASPBERRY  AND  BLACKBERRY 


Spray  No. 

When  to  Apply 

Materials  to  Use 

What  For 

i  

When     dormant 

Any  of  the  standard  scale  sprays  previously 

Scale  insects 

in  fall  favorable 

recommended  in  these  tables  

days  in  winter 
or  spring  

2    

When    buds    are 

Arsenate  of  lead  powder  15  pounds  (3  pounds 

Raspberry  der- 

swelling   if  pale 

paste)  in  50  gallons  of  water 

brown      beetle, 
Byturus       uni- 
color,  is  present.  . 

turus  uni- 
color 

When  in  bloom 

(Same  as  No.  2) 

(Same  as  No  2) 

INDEX 


Aberdeen-Angus,  228 

Accounting,  see  Farm  accounting 

Acid  soil,  44 

Aeration,  see  Air 

Air,  amount  in  soil,  24;  composition 
in  soil,  23;  how  held  in  soil,  23; 
how  supplied  to  soil,  25;  plants' 
need  of,  6;  relation  to  plant 
growth,  3 

Alfalfa,  113,  114 

American  Merino,  254 

Ammonia,  losses  of,  30 

Army  worm,  181 

Ayrshire,  240 

Animals,  farm,  how  to  produce,  205- 
215;  kind  to  keep,  216-219;  why 
raise,  201-204;  see  Farm  animals 

Apple  diseases:  bitter  rot,  167;  blue 
mold  rot,  168;  canker,  172;  cod- 
ling moth,  1 86;  rust  and  red  cedar, 
165;  scab,  165,  171 

Babcock  test,  236 

Bacon  type,  hog,  262 

Bacteria,  24,  27,  32,  35,  44,  109,  247, 
250,  251,  314,  315;  action  on  milk, 
250;  —  organic  matter,  27;  — 
rock  phosphate,  35;  —  sewage,  315; 
—  soil,  24,  27;  cause  of  plant  dis- 
eases, 162;  denitrifying,  29,  30; 
nitrifying,  28;  nitrogen-fixing,  30, 
31,  32,  100;  typhoid,  34 

Barley,  distribution  map,  103;  har- 
vesting, 104;  improving,  159; 
production  and  value,  89;  vari- 
eties, 102,  103 

Beef  cattle,  220-232,  breeds,  225- 
229;  and  capital,  33 ij  character- 


istics, 222;  conformation,  225; 
dressing  percentage,  224;  feeders, 
231 ;  feeding  and  management,  230; 
feed  lots  and  buildings,  230;  kind 
to  raise,  222;  market  demands,  220; 
marketing,  231;  production,  220, 
221;  raising  on  farm,  222 

Beef  cuts,  position  of,  221;  whole- 
sale, 221;  wholesale  prices  of,  223 

Bees,  107,  108 

Berkshire,  264,  265 

Bills,  payable,  306;    receivable,  3^ 

Birds,  194-200;  appreciation  of,  200; 
census  of,  197;  as  destroyers  of 
insects,  195, —  of  rodents,  195,  — 
of  weed  seeds,  194;  food  of  adult, 
194,  —  of  young,  196;  importance 
of,  197;  list  of  insect  eaters,  195, — 
of  seed  eaters,  194,  195;  nesting 
sites  and  food  for,  199;  popula- 
tion of,  197;  relation  of  trees  and 
shrubs  to,  198 

Blight,  167,  169,  170 

Boll- weevil,  123 

Boll-worm,  123 

Bordeaux  mixture,  128,  165 

Brooder,  290 

Buckwheat,  106,  107;  honey,  107; 
production,  89;  sowing,  107 

Budding,  145 

Bumble  bee,  180 

Burbank,  Luther,  152 

Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  148 

Business,  farm,  294,  295,  321 

Cabbage,  butterfly,  191;  club-root, 
171;  maggot,  191;  worm,  181,  192; 
yellows,  170 


343 


344 


INDEX 


Calcium,  261;  supply,  38;  see  Lime 

Canker,  172 

Carbohydrates,  207,  209,  211 

Carbon,  i,  2;  dioxide,  2,  24 

Cash,  accounts,  305;  crops,  63; 
record,  302,  304 

Caterpillars,  growth  of,  183 

Cattle,  beef,  see  Beef  cattle;  dairy, 
see  Dairy  cattle 

Cherry,  crown  rot,  168 

Chester  White,  265;  illus.,  267 

Cheviot,  258 

Chickens,  see  Poultry 

Chinch  bug,  96,  190,  191 

Chlorine,  26,  35 

Cholera,  hog,  269 

Chunk,  farm,  illus.,  274 

Church,  rural,  323 

Clay,  9,  ii ;  how  modified,  16,  53,  54; 
properties,  -52;  soils,  52;  water- 
lifting  power,  1 8 

Climate,  adapting  crops  to,  58; 
influencing  choice  of  crops,  58;  — 
crop  production,  86;  —  method  of 
harvesting,  72;  influence  on  leg- 
umes, no,  — on  oats,  99,  — 
on  potatoes,  126,  —  on  wheat, 
QO 

Clover,  111-113;  alsike,  no;  crim- 
son, no;  Japan,  113;  mammoth, 
113;  red,  in;  sweet,  113 

Codling  moth,  181,  186 

Cold  frame,  136;  illus.,  136 

Comforts,  home,  311-313 

Commercial  fertilizer,  see  Fertilizer 

Community,  rural,  311-326;  and 
business  relations,  321;  and  church 
relations,  323;  and  educational 
relations,  322;  and  recreation,  324; 
and  social  relations,  323 

Compacting,  manure,  30;  soil,  21 

Conformation  of  beef  cattle,  225; 
of  dairy  cattle,  237 

Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  157* 

Conveniences,  home,  309-311 


Corn,  74-88;  cultivation,  82;  dent, 
75;  diseases,  84;  distribution  map, 
75;  ear-to-row  test,  155;  fertiliz- 
ers, 78;  flint,  76;  harvesting,  85- 
87;  improvement,  85,  155-158; 
injurious  insects,  181;  kinds,  75; 
place  in  cropping  system,  77; 
planting,  81;  pod,  76;  pop,  76; 
prices,  76;  production  and  climate, 
76;  production  and  labor,  88; 
root-rot,  84,  96,  165;  seed  bed,  77; 
seed  drying,  79;  seed  selection,  78; 
seed  testing,  80;  smut,  84;  illus., 
83;  value,  74 

Corn-root,  lice,  181;  rot,  84,  96,  165; 
worm,  181 

Cotton,  119-123;  boll- weevil,  123; 
boll-worm,  123;  cultivation,  122; 
diseases,  122;  distribution,  121; 
harvesting,  123;  injurious  insects, 
122;  seed  bed,  121 

Cowpea,  28,  114 

Crop  farming,  296 

Crop  production,  57-73;  adaptation 
to  climate,  58;  cash  crops,  63; 
cultivation,  70;  getting  plants 
started,  69;  handling  crops,  66; 
influenced  by  competition,  65;  — 
by  cropping  systems,  60,  63;  — 
by  labor,  65;  —  by  soil,  59;  main- 
taining soil  fertility,  60;  planting, 
69;  principles  of,  57,  66;  seed  bed, 
69;  selection  of  crops,  57;  —  of 
seed,  66-68 

Crop  rotation,  188,  206 

Cropping  system,  60 

Crops,  barley,  102;  buckwheat,  106; 
cash,  63;  corn,  77;  cotton,  119; 
factory,  130;  forage,  108;  legumes, 
108;  oats,  9;  potato,  124;  rye,  104; 
tobacco,  129;  wheat,  90 

Dairy  cattle,  233-247;  breeds,  240- 
242;  conformation,  234,  237;  farms, 
234;  feeding,  242-246;  herd,  236; 
improvement,  239;  illus.,  235; 


INDEX 


345 


management,  246,  247;  summer 
feeding,  245;  types  of,  236;  winter 
feeding,  245  » 

Diseases,  plant,  161-172;  apple,  156; 
bacterial,  162;  bacterial  black  rot, 
1 68;  bitter  rot,  167;  black  mold, 
163,  illus.,  163;  blue  mold,  168; 
brown  rot,  168;  control  of,  164-166; 
—  apple  rust,  165;  —  corn-root 
rot,  165;  — wheat  rust,  165;  corn, 
84;  cotton,  122;  dry  rot,  168; 
fruit  trees,  144;  growth  of  fungi, 
162;  importance  of  control,  166; 
infecting  potatoes,  128;  interfer- 
ence with  plant  growth,  161;  man- 
agement of  crops  to  control,  62; 
meaning  of,  161;  oats,  101;  pow- 
dery mildew,  164,  illus.,  164;  pro- 
tecting crops  from,  71;  treatment 
for  oat  smut,  165;  treatment  for 
seed  potatoes,  164;  wheat,  98 

Dorset,  258 

Draft  horse,  illus.,  271 

Drainage,  foundation  of  soil  manage- 
ment, 46;  drained  and  undrained 
soil,  22,  23;  and  soil  air,  25;  and 
water  control,  19 

Dressing  percentage,  beef,  224 

Drought,  22 

Dry  mash,  291 

Ducks,  279 

Duroc  Jersey,  265;  illus.,  266 

Durum  wheat,  149 

Egg  production,  280,  284,  287 
Embryo  sac,  151;  illus.,  151 
English  sparrow,  199 
Erosion,  illus.,  10 

Evaporation,  loss  of  water  by,  19; 
control  of.  20 

Factory  crops,  119,  130 

Farm  accounting,  300-308;  bills  pay- 
able, 306;  bills  receivable,  306; 
cash  accounts,  305;  cash  record, 
302-304;  enterprise  accounts,  305; 


feed  records,  307;  income,  295; 
inventory,  301,  302;  labor  records, 
306;  production  records,  237,  308; 
requirements  for  system  of,  301; 
systems  of,  300,  301 

Farm  animals,  care  of,  212,  213;  and 
capital,  218;  and  crops  and  crop- 
ping systems,  214;  crop  residue 
used  by,  202;  feeding  of,  206-212; 
feeding  balance  for,  206;  feeding 
principles,  207;  feed  lots  and 
buildings  for,  230;  grading,  213; 
how  secured,  205;  improvement 
of,  213,  214;  importance  of  well- 
bred,  205;  kind  to  keep,  216; 
labor  distribution  by,  202;  main- 
tenance ration  for,  207;  marketing, 
217;  preparing  rations  for,  211, 
212;  production  of  crops  related 
to,  203;  productive  ration  for,  207; 
standard  ration  for,  208;  standard- 
izing ration  for,  210;  size  of  farm, 
216;  and  soil  fertility,  201;  sup- 
ply of,  201 ;  and  system  of  farming, 
2O3>  types  and  breeds  of,  219; 
value  of,  201 

Farm  garden,  131-137;  care  and 
protection  of,  134;  preparation  of, 
131;  requirements  for,  131 

Farm  home,  309,  318 

Farm  horses,  see  Horses 

Farm  management,  294-308;  ac- 
counting, see  Farm  accounting; 
crop  farming,  296;  definition  of, 
294;  diversified  farming,  299;  or- 
ganization, 299;  special  farming, 
298;  stock  farming,  298;  types  of 
farming,  295;  illus.,  296 

Farmer,  business  relations  of,  321; 
church  relations  of,  323;  commu- 
nity relations  of,  319;  educational 
relations  of,  322;  social  relations  of, 
323;  and  recreation,  324 

Farmbtead,  plan  of,  316 

Fats,  207 

Feed  records,  307 


346 


INDEX 


Feeders,  beef  cattle,  231;  hogs,  263; 
sheep,  253 

Feeding,  beef  cattle,  230;  crops  for 
animals,  64;  dairy  cattle,  242; 
hogs,  266,  267;  horses,  273-275; 
poultry,  283-287;  principles  of, 
207-212;  sheep,  253,  258 

Fertility,  see  Soil  fertility 

Fertilization,  151,  152 

Fertilizers,  commercial,  39-45;  anal- 
ysis, 40,  41;  estimating  value  of, 
41;  home  mixing,  42;  for  corn,  78; 
for  tobacco,  130;  for  wheat,  98 

Fields,    arrangement  of,    illus.,    299 

Food  for  plants,  see  Plant  food 

Forage  crops,  108-118;  definition  of, 
108;  grasses,  115-117;  legumes, 
108-114;  millets,  117;  sorghums, 
118 

Free  "water,  illus..  13 

Fruit  raising,  138-146;  care  of  trees, 
143;  establishing  an  orchard,  140; 
grafting  and  budding,  145;  in- 
sects and  diseases,  143;  soil,  143; 
a  special  crop,  138;  variety  and 
succession,  139 

Fultz,  Abraham,  150 

Fungi,  manner  of  growth,  162;  para- 
sitic, 167 

Galloway,  228 

Galls,  171 

Gapes,  292 

Garden,  131-137;  care  and  protec- 
tion of,  134;  cold  frame,  135,  136; 
essentials,  131;  farm  gardening, 
131;  hot  bed,  135;  job  for  boys 
and  girls,  135;  plan,  134;  pre- 
serving products  of,  135;  rotation, 
133;  sources  of  information  on, 
134;  three- field  system,  132;  truck 
or  market,  137 

Geese,  279 

Germination,  capillary  water  for,  21; 
testing  seeds  for,  68,  80 

Grading,  improvement  by,  235 


Grafting,  145;  illus.,  144 

Grain  moth,  182 

Granulation,  heavy  soils,  19,  44 

Grasses,     115-117;      meadow,     116; 

pasture,  115 
Growth,  plant,  6 
Guernsey,  242;  illus.}  241 
Guinea  fowl,  279 

Hampshire,  hog,  265;  illus.,  268; 
sheep,  257 

Hansen,  N.  E.,  152 

Hay,  103,  107,  112,  114,  116-118 

Hereford,  227,  228;  illus.,  227 

Holstein,  240;  illus.,  238 

Home,  farm,  309-318;  comforts  of, 
311;  conveniences  in,  309;  fur- 
nace in,  illus.,  312;  furnishings, 
317,  318;  kitchen,  310;  lighting, 
311,  312;  living  conditions  in,  309; 
making  attractive,  315;  sanitation 
°f>  3J3>  sewage  disposal  of,  312; 
illus.,  314;  water  supply  of,  309, 
310 

Horses,  farm,  270-277;  care  of,  275; 
conformation,  272;  draft,  271,  272; 
illus.,  271,  274;  driving,  276; 
feeding,  273-275;  grooming,  276; 
housing,  272;  importance  of,  270; 
stalls  for,  273 

House,  see  Home 

House  fly,  192 

Humus,  9,  61,  92 

Hydrogen,  i,  2 

Income,  farm,  295 

Incubation,  288,  289 

Inoculation,  soil,  30-32 

Insects  180-193;  ability  to  meet 
adverse  conditions,  183;  birds, 
destroyers  of,  193;  biting,  186; 
climatic  conditions  related  to,  190; 
control  of,  62,  180,  185,  186,  188- 
191;  diseases  of,  192;  enemies  of, 
192,  193;  food  of,  186;  growth  of, 
183;  harmful,  180;  injuries  by, 


INDEX 


347 


180,  182;  injuries  of  corn,  83,  —  of 
cotton,  122,  —  of  fruit,  144,  —  of 
garden  crops,  134,  — r  of  oats,  101, 
—  of  potatoes,  128, —  of  wheat, 
95-96;  kinds  of,  182;  learning 
about,  193;  life  history,  185;  para- 
sitic, 192;  reproduction  of,  182; 
soil  fertility  and  control  of,  190; 
sucking,  187;  useful,  180;  what 
a  farmer  should  know  of,  187;  see 
Birds,  Climate 

Jersey,  240,  241 
Joint  worm,  191 

Kafir,  illus.,  117 
Kerosene  emulsion,  187 

Labor,  65,  87,  88,  97,  202.  203,  233 

Labor  records,  306 

Lace  wing  fly,  180 

Lady  beetle,  180 

Lambs,  259 

Land  plaster,  36 

Larva,  insect,  185 

Lay  of  land,  218 

Legumes,  30,  108-115;  see  Alfalfa; 
basis  of  selection,  no;  climate 
influencing,  no;  cowpea,  114; 
definition  of,  108;  inoculation, 
30,  32;  Japan  clover,  113;  kinds 
of,  109;  mammoth  clover,  113; 
supply  nitrogen  to  soil,  30;  red 
clover,  in;  soil  for,  no;  soybean, 
114;  sweet  clover,  113;  value  of, 
109;  velvet  bean,  114;  vetch,  114 

Lighting  farm  home,  311 

Lime,  19,  44,  49 

Lice,  292 

Lime-sulfur  mixture,  187 

Lincoln,  256;  portrait,  256 

Living  conditions,  farm,  309 

Loam,  54 

Magnesium,  26 
Maintenance  ration,  207,  243 
Mammals,  193 


Management,  soil,  46-56;  farm,  294- 
380;  of  dairy  cattle,  246 

Manure,  28-30,  35,  202;  compacting 
to  prevent  loss,  30;  losses  of,  28,  29, 
illus.,  28;  and  soil  management, 
48,  51 ;  value  of,  28,  29 

Markets,  217,  220,  231,  233,  252, 
261 

Mash,  285,  291 

May  beetle,  illus.,  185 

Meal  worm,  182 

Merino,  254,  255;  illus.,  255 

Mildew,  170,  171;  illus.,  164 

Milk,  233-251;  bacteria  in,  250; 
cooling,  250;  handling,  247;  im- 
purities, 248,  249;  pails,  illus.,  249; 
production,  233;  record,  237;  uten- 
sils, 250 

Milker,  249 

Millet,  117 

Milo  maize,  illus.,  118 

Mites,  293 

Mole,  193 

Mulch,  illus.,  3,  20,  83,  177 

Mutton,  252,  255-257;  cuts  of,  253 

New  Jersey  Agricultural  Experiment 

Station,  289 
Nitrates,  27,  29-33,  42 
Nitrification,  28 
Nitrogen,   2,   26-33;    availability  of, 

27;     carriers,    33;     in    commercial 

fertilizers,  32;   losses,  29,  illus.,  29; 

supply  of,  26,  29,  30,  48 
Nitrogen-fixing  bacteria,  26 
Nodules,  root,  31;  illus.,  31 
Nutritive  ratio,  209 
Nymphs,  185 

Oats,  98-101;  climatic  influences  on, 
99;  diseases  of,  101;  distribution 
of,  101;  planting,  101;  seed  bed, 
100;  seed  selection,  100;  soil 
adapted  for,  99;  system  of  farming 
for,  100;  value,  89 

Oliver,  G.  W.,  153 


348 


INDEX 


Organic  matter  in  soils,  9,  27,  28,  48, 

5i,53 

Osmosis,  5,  6;  illus.,  5 
Ovary,  151 
Owls,  195,  196 
Oxford,  257 
Oxygen,  i,  2 

Pasture,  108,  115,  116 

Peach,  brown  rot,  168;  scab,  171 

Percolation,  18 

Phosphate,  33-36,  40,  42,  52;  influ- 
encing yield  of  potatoes,  34;  illus., 
35;  methods  of  using,  34 

Phosphoric  acid,  36,  40,  41,  43 

Phyloxera,  192 

Pig,  see  Hog 

Pistil,  150,  151 

Plant  diseases,  see  Diseases 

Plant  improvement,  147-160;  asso- 
ciations, 159;  by  crossing,  151-153; 
illus.,  150-151;  —  double  crossing, 
illus.,  157;  by  introduction  of 
foreign  plants,  148;  high  yielding 
plants,  147;  meaning  of,  147;  new 
plants,  sudden  appearance  of,  149; 
selection,  153-160;  —  ear-to-row 
trial,  155;  illus.,  155;  —  four-hill- 
unit  method,  158;  — final,  155;  — 
initial,  154;  illus.,  153;  —  multi- 
plying plot,  156 

Plant  introduction,  Division  of,  148 

Plant  food,  26-30,  33,  36,  38 

Plants,  helping  to  grow,  1-7;  im- 
proving, 147-160,  see  Plant  im- 
provement; diseases  of,  161-172, 
see  Diseases;  insect  injuries  of, 
179-193,  see  Insects 

Planting,  69;  corn,  77;  alfalfa,  113, 
114;  buckwheat,  107;  clover,  112; 
cotton,  122;  fruit  trees,  140,  141; 
oats,  101;  plan  for  garden,  133, 
134;  wheat,  95 

Plowing,  19 

Plum,  brown  rot,  36 

Poland  China,  264;  illus.,  263 


Pollen,  151 

Pork,  cuts  of,  illus.,  262 

Potash,  38,  40,  41,  43 

Potato  beetle,  183 

Potatoes,  124-129;  climate  suited  for, 
126;  cultivation,  126;  diseases  of^ 
128, 168;  dry  rot  of,  168;  fertilizing, 
127;  harvesting,  129;  improvement, 
158;  insect  injuries,  128;  potash 
needed  for,  38;  requirements  for 
production,  126;  treatment  of  seed, 
164;  tubers,  kind  for  selection,  illus., 
127;  value  of,  124;  varieties,  126 

Poultry,  278-293;  care  of  chicks,  290; 
care  of  flock,  292;  constitution 
and  vigor,  281;  feeding,  283-287; 
housing,  287;  improvement,  282; 
incubation,  288,  289;  kinds,  278; 
place  on  farm,  278;  types  and 
breeds,  280;  —  egg  laying,  280; 
—  general  purpose,  281;  —  meat, 
280 

Production  records,  308 

Productive  ration,  dairy  cows,  244 

Protein,  2,  109,  207-211,  2^3,  244, 
266,  274,  285 

Pruning,  142,  143;  illus.,  140,  142 

Pupa,  185 

Purdue  University,  41,  291 

Rambouillet,  255 

Ration,  207,  208,  210,  212,  244 

Records,     feed,     307;      labor,     306; 

production,  237,  308 
Recreation,  324 
Rice,  89,  105,  106 
Rock  particles,  9,  14,  15 
Root-hair,  4,  5;  illus.,  4 
Root  systems,  4,  5 
Rot,    bacterial,     168;     bitter,     167; 

black,  1 68;  blue  mold,  168;  brown, 

1 68;  corn  root,  84,  95,  165 
Rotation  of  crops,  48,  83,  92,  95,  100, 

no,  114,  115,  116,  120,  125,   129, 

132,  133,  166,  178,  188 
Rural  community,  311-326 


INDEX 


349 


Rusts,  95,  165,  172,  195 

Rye,  89, 104, 105 ;  as  green  manure,  28 

Salt,  44,  213 

Sand,  9;  surface  exposed,  illus.,  15 

Sandy  soil,  see  Soil 

Sanitation,  313,  314 

San  Jose  scale,  illus.,  187 

Scab,  165;  wheat,  95 

Seed,  drying  corn,  illus.,  79;  germi- 
nation test,  illus.,  80;  planting, 
see  Planting;  preparation  of,  77, 
84,  85;  selection,  66,  93,  100 

Seed  bed,  69,  82,  95,  100,  in,  113, 
121,  128 

Septic  tank,  313,  314 

Sewage    disposal,    313,    314;    illus., 

3i3,  3H 

Sheep,  252-260;  care  and  manage- 
ment, 258;  feeders,  259;  feeding, 
258;  kind  to  raise,  254;  lambs,  259; 
long  wooled  breeds,  256;  market, 
252,  259;  medium  wooled  breeds, 
256;  mutton  breeds,  256;  parasites, 
260;  production,  252;  raising,  258; 
stocking  farm  with,  253;  types  of, 
254;  wooled  type,  254 

Shorthorn,  226;  illus.,  226 

Shropshire,  257 

Silage,  86,  87,  246 

Silkworm,  180 

Silo,  86 

Skunk, 193 

Smut,  84,  94,  101,  172 

Social  relations,  323 

Soil,  5-56;  acid,  44;  air,  23-25; 
amendments,  43,  44;  and  choice  of 
crops,  59;  clay,  52;  compacting, 
21 ;  composition  of,  8;  definition, 
8;  drainage,  illus.,  22,  23,  see  also 
Drainage;  fertility,  see  Soil  fer- 
tility; inoculation,  31;  kinds,  n; 
liming,  44;  loam,  54;  mulch,  3,  20, 
83,  177;  organic  matter  in,  27,  28, 
48,  51,  53;  origin  of,  9;  relation  to 
plant  growth,  8;  illus.,  3;  sandy, 


50;    sub-soil,   illus.,   9;    variation 

.    in,  49;   water,  see  Water 

Soil  fertility,  acid  phosphate,  34,  35; 
amendments,  43,  45;  bacteria,  27, 
28;  calcium,  37;  clay,  52,  54; 
commercial  fertilizers,  see  Ferti- 
lizers; drainage,  see  Drainage; 
farm  animals,  203,  204;  green 
manure,  30,  48;  legumes,  30,  32, 
no,  in;  lime,  44,  45,  49;  loam, 
54,  55;  manure,  28-30,  48;  nitro- 
gen, 26-33;  organic  matter,  26-32; 
phosphoric  acid,  36;  phosphorus, 
33-36;  plant  food,  26;  potassium, 
36-38;  rock  phosphate,  34-46; 
sandy  soils,  50-51;  system  of 
farming,  55,  56;  tillage,  47,  48 

Soil  management,  23,  46-56;  clay 
soils,  52-54;  definition  of,  46; 
drainage,  46,  47;  lime,  49;  loam, 
54;  manure,  48,  49;  rotation  of 
crops,  48;  sandy  soils,  49-51; 
tillage,  47;  tilth,  46 

Sorghums,  118 

Southdown,  257 

Soy  bean,  114 

Spores,  169,  170 

Spot  diseases,  171 

Spray,  186,  187 

Stables,  dairy,  249;  horse,  272,  273 

Standard  rations,  208,  244,  284 

Starch,  i 

Straw,  28 

Sub-soil,  illus.,  9 

Sulfur,  26 

Syrphus  fly,  180 

Systems  of  accounting  300,  301 

Tamworth,  264 
Tillage,  19,  47 
Timothy,  116;  illus.,  116 
Tilth,  46 

Tobacco,  129,  130 
Tomato,  130;  worm,  192 
Turkey,  279 

Utensils,  milk,  250 


350 


INDEX 


Vegetables,  see  Garden 

Velvet  bean,  114 

Vetch,  114 

Ventilation,  246,  258,  272,  290,  311 

Water,  absorbing  organs,  root-hairs, 
5;  amount  in  soil,  15;  amount 
used  by  plants,  3;  capillary  or  film, 
3,  14,  15;  control  by  drainage,  21; 
drainage  in  sandy  soils,  17;  effect 
on  soil,  10 ;  free,  14;  how  bring  to 
surface  of  soil,  20;  how  held  in  soil, 
14,  19;  how  plants  get,  4;  influ- 
ence on  soil  bacteria,  14,  —  on  soil 
temperature,  13;  kinds,  19;  losses 
from  soil,  illus.,  19;  movement  in 
soil,  17, 19;  needed  in  soil,  12;  path 
in  plant,  2;  percolation,  19; 
plants  need,  2;  properties  of,  12; 
relation  to  plant  growth,  illus.,  3; 
—  to  root-hair,  illus.,  18;  —  soil 
particles,  12;  —  to  soil  tempera- 
ture, 13;  solvent  power,  24;  sup- 
ply for  home,  313;  table,  16,  17; 
upward  movement  in  soil,  17 


Weeds,  173-179;  control  of,  62,  177, 
178;  definition  of,  173;  effect  on 
crop  production,  173;  illus.,  174, 
175;  hosts  for  fungi,  166;  losses 
due  to,  173;  protecting  crops  from, 
71;  seed  dispersal,  176;  why  suc- 
cessful, 174-176 

Wheat,  90-97;  cost  of  production,  97; 
destruction  of  barberry  for  rust 
control,  165;  diseases  of,  95;  dis- 
tribution map,  90;  improvement 
by  selection,  159;  influence  of 

•  climate  on,  90;  insects  injurious  to, 
95;  methods  of  harvesting,  96; 
production  and  value,  89;  rela- 
tion to  system  of  farming,  91; 
seed  bed,  95;  seed  selection,  94; 
soil  suited  for,  91;  time  of  sowing, 
95;  types,  illus.,  94 

White  grub,  181,  188 

Wilt,  170 

Wire  worm,  181,  189 

Yard,  farm,  316,  317 
Y.  M.  C.  A.,  rural,  326 


25 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


